Sociology: Difference between revisions

Social interactions and their consequences are the subject of sociology. (Image: Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago.)

Sociology is an academic and applied discipline that studies society and human social interaction. Sociological research ranges from the analysis of short contacts between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of global social processes. The field focuses on how and why people are organized in society, either as individuals or as members of associations, groups, and institutions. As an academic discipline, sociology is typically considered a social science.

One useful way to describe the discipline is as a cluster of subdisciplines (sometimes called fields) that examine different dimensions of society. For example, social stratification studies inequality and class structure; demography studies changes in a population size or type; criminology examines criminal behavior and deviance; political sociology studies government and laws; and the sociology of race and sociology of gender examine the social construction of race and gender as well as race and gender inequality. New sociological fields and sub-fields—such as network analysis and environmental sociology—continue to evolve; many of them are cross-disciplinary in nature. The extent to which the subject could be defined as a 'science' is also an area of considerable debate within the field, leading to ontological and epistemological philosophical questions. This is highlighted by the way in which UK universities offer either Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor_of_science degrees.

On the whole there has been a general trend for American sociology to be more statistical and scientific in nature, whereas British sociology has become increasingly qualitative, ethnographic, and sceptical of the scientific approach (positivism). Much like Cultural studies, the British sociological environment has been more influenced by the cultural changes of the 1960's, 20th century French philosophy, the study of English literature, and Interpretivism.

Many sociologists perform research useful outside the academy. Their findings aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, developers, business leaders, and people interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy.

History

Main Article: History of sociology

Sociology is somewhat young compared to other social science disciplines, having evolved primarily during the early 19th century. However, social analysis has been carried out by scholars and philosophers at least as early as the time of Plato, providing the discipline with historical roots comparable to those of other social sciences. Sociology, in studying society, including economic, political and cultural systems, has origins in the common stock of human knowledge and philosophy.

Sociology emerged as a scientific discipline in the early 19th century as an academic response to the challenge of modernity: as the world was becoming smaller and more integrated, people's experience of the world was increasingly atomized and dispersed. Sociologists hoped not only to understand what held social groups together, but also to develop an antidote to social disintegration and injustice.

The word sociology was coined by French thinker Auguste Comte in 1838 from Latin socius (companion, associate) and Greek λóγος, lógos (word). Comte hoped to unify all studies of humankind - including history, psychology and economics. His own sociological scheme was typical of the 19th century; he believed all human life had passed through the same distinct historical stages (theology, metaphysics, positive science) and that, if one could grasp this progress, one could prescribe the remedies for social ills. Sociology was to be the 'queen of positive sciences.'

Karl Marx

"Classical" theorists of sociology from the late 19th and early 20th centuries include Karl Marx, Ferdinand Tönnies, Émile Durkheim, Vilfredo Pareto, and Max Weber. Like Comte, these figures did not consider themselves only "sociologists". Their works addressed religion, education, economics, law, psychology, ethics, philosophy, and theology, and their theories have been applied in a variety of academic disciplines. Their influence on sociology was foundational.

Institutionalizing Sociology

Herbert Spencer

The first book with the term 'sociology' in its title was The Study of Sociology (1874) by the English philosopher Herbert Spencer.

File:Lester Ward.jpg

Lester Ward

In the United States, Lester Frank Ward, described by some as the father of American sociology, published Dynamic Sociology in 1883 and the discipline was taught by its own name for the first time at the University of Kansas, Lawrence in 1890 under the course title Elements of Sociology (the oldest continuing sociology course in America). The Department of History and Sociology at the University of Kansas was established in 1891 [1],[2], and the first full fledged independent university department of sociology was established in 1892 at the University of Chicago by Albion W. Small, who in 1895 founded the American Journal of Sociology [3].

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Max Weber

The first European department of sociology was founded in 1895 at the University of Bordeaux by Émile Durkheim, founder of L'Année Sociologique (1896). The first sociology department to be established in the United Kingdom was at the London School of Economics and Political Science (home of the British Journal of Sociology) [4] in 1904. In 1919 a sociology department was established in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich by Max Weber and in 1920 in Poland by Florian Znaniecki.

International cooperation in sociology began in 1893 when René Worms founded the small Institut International de Sociologie that was later on eclipsed by the much larger International Sociological Association [5] starting in 1949 (ISA). 1905, the American Sociological Association, the world's largest association of professional sociologists, was founded; 1909 as well the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie (German Society for Sociology) by Ferdinand Tönnies, Max Weber et al.

Positivism and anti-positivism

Early theorists' approach to sociology, led by Comte, was to treat it in much the same manner as natural science, applying the same methods and methodology used in the natural sciences to study social phenomena. The emphasis on empiricism and the scientific method sought to provide an incontestable foundation for any sociological claims or findings, and to distinguish sociology from less empirical fields such as philosophy. This methodological approach, called positivism, became a source of contention between sociologists and other scientists, and eventually a point of divergence within the field itself.

While most sciences evolved from deterministic, Newtonian models to probabilistic models which accept and even incorporate uncertainty, sociology began to cleave into those who believed in a deterministic approach (attributing variation to structure, interactions, or other forces) and those who rejected the very possibility of explanation and prediction. One push away from positivism was philosophical and political, such as in the dialectical materialism based on Marx's theories.

A second push away from scientific positivism was cultural, even sociological. As early as the 19th century, positivist and naturalist approaches to studying social life were questioned by scientists like Wilhelm Dilthey and Heinrich Rickert, who argued that the natural world differs from the social world because of unique aspects of human society such as meanings, symbols, rules, norms, and values. These elements of society inform human cultures. This view was further developed by Max Weber, who introduced antipositivism (humanistic sociology). According to this view, which is closely related to antinaturalism, sociological research must concentrate on humans' cultural values (see also: French pragmatism. This has led to some controversy on how one can draw the line between subjective and objective research and has also influenced hermeneutical studies. Similar disputes, especially in the era of the Internet, have led to variations in sociology such as public sociology, which emphasizes the usefulness of sociological expertise to abstracted audiences.

Focus of Sociology

Sociologists study society and social behavior by examining the groups and social institutions people form, as well as various social, religious, political, and business organizations. They also study the behavior of, and social interaction among, groups, trace their origin and growth, and analyze the influence of group activities on individual members. Sociologists are concerned with the characteristics of social groups, organizations, and institutions; the ways individuals are affected by each other and by the groups to which they belong; and the effect of social traits such as sex, age, or race on a person’s daily life. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy. Most sociologists work in one or more specialties, such as social organization, social stratification, and social mobility; racial and ethnic relations; education; family; social psychology; urban, rural, political, and comparative sociology; sex roles and relationships; demography; gerontology; criminology; and sociological practice. In short it's the study of common sense.

Although sociology emerged in large part from Comte's conviction that sociology eventually would subsume all other areas of scientific inquiry, in the end, sociology did not replace the other sciences. Instead, sociology came to be identified with the other social sciences (psychology, economics, etc.). Today, sociology studies humankind's organizations, social institutions and their social interactions. The discipline has concentrated particularly on the organization of complex industrial societies. Recent sociologists, taking cues from anthropologists, have noted the "Western emphasis" of the field. In response, many sociology departments around the world are encouraging multi-cultural and multi-national studies.

Today, sociologists research macro-structures that organize society, such as race or ethnicity, social class, gender roles, and institutions such as the family; social processes that represent deviation from, or the breakdown of, these structures, including crime and divorce; and micro-processes such as interpersonal interactions and the socialization of individuals.

Sociologists often rely on quantitative methods of social research to describe large patterns in social relationships and in order to develop models that can help predict social change. Other branches of sociology believe that qualitative methods - such as focused interviews, group discussions and ethnographic methods - allow for a better understanding of social processes. Some sociologists argue for a middle ground that sees quantitative and qualitative approaches as complementary. Results from one approach can fill gaps in the other approach. For example, quantitative methods could describe large or general patterns while qualitative approaches could help to understand how individuals understand those patterns.

Sociological theory

Main articles: sociological theory and social theory

Sociological theory refers to the use of abstract and often complex theoretical frameworks to explain and analyze social action, social processes and social structures. Sociological theories are a major part of sociology. In constrast, social theory, which is sometimes considered a branch of sociology, is inherently interdisciplinary, as it deals with ideas from multiple fields, including anthropology, economics, theology, history, philosophy, and many others.

Social theories developed almost simultaneously with the birth of the sociology itself. In the 19th century three great, classical theories of social and historical change were created: the social evolutionism theory (of which social Darwinism is a part), the social cycle theory and the Marxist historical materialism theory. Although the majority of 19th century social theories are now considered obsolete they have spawned new, modern social theories. Some modern social theories are revisions of classical theories, like Multilineal theories of evolution (neoevolutionism, sociobiology, theory of modernisation, theory of post-industrial society) or the theory of subjectivity.

By the mid 20th century, sociologists had developed sociological theories which were based in the institutions and literature of professional sociology. At the same time, sociologists have continued to use and contribute to social theories which are used across a range of disciplines. (See sociological theory for some types of sociological theory.)

There is a tension in the discipline between more abstract theory and more empirical theory. Some social and sociological theories tackle very large-scale social trends and structures using hypotheses that cannot be easily proved, except by historical and philosophical interpretation. Social theories about modernity or globalization are two examples. Some theorists, such as deconstructionists or postmodernists, may argue that any systematic type of social scientific research theory is inherently flawed.

In empirical social research, empirical findings can provide support for sociological theories and vice versa. For instance, statistical research grounded in the scientific method may find a severe income disparity between women and men performing the same occupation can complement the underlying premise of the complex social theories of feminism or patriarchy. A sociological perspective (see sociological imagination) has through the years appealed to students and others dissatisfied with the status quo because it carries the assumption that societal structures may be arbitrary or controlled by specific powerful groups, thus implying the possibility of change.

Sociological research

Main article: social research

The basic goal of sociological research is to understand the social world in its many forms. Its main way to do this is by testing to verify a hypothesis. Merton describes social research as initiating, reformulating, reflecting and classifying theory. This involves having a scientific and theoretical perspective about the aspect of the social world the sociologists is studying.

There are several methods that sociologists can use to gather empirical evidence, including questionnaires or survey research, interviews, participant observation, statistical research, evaluation research, and assessment. These are often known as methods of sociological inquiry.

The problem with all of these approaches is that they are all based on what theoretical position the researcher adopts to explain and understand the society the researcher sees in front of themselves. If one is a functionalist like Émile Durkheim, one is likely to interpret everything in terms of large-scale social structures. A symbolic interactionist is likely to concentrate on the way people understand one another. A researcher who is a Marxist or a neo-Marxist is likely to interpret everything through the grid of class struggle and economics. Phenomenologists tend to think that there is only the way in which people construct their meanings of reality, and nothing else. One of the real problems is that many sociologists argue that only one theoretical approach is the "right" one, and it is theirs. In practice, sociologists often tend to mix and match different approaches and methods, since each method produces particular types of data.

The Internet is of interest for sociologists in three ways: as a tool for research, for example, in using online questionnaires instead of paper ones, as a discussion platform, and as a research topic. Sociology of the Internet in the last sense includes analysis of online communities (e.g. as found in newsgroups), virtual communities and virtual worlds, organisational change catalysed through new media like the Internet, and societal change at-large in the transformation from industrial to informational society (or to information society).

Methods of sociological inquiry

• Observation- This is the main foundation of 'primary' social research, as opposed to 'secondary' research, which involves existent studies, papers, theory, etc.. One makes use of the various senses in studying a social phenomenon or social behavior. Qualitative research relies heavily on observation, although it is in a highly disciplined form. See qualitative research.
• Participant Observation- As the name implies, the researcher goes to the field (usually a community), lives with the people for some months, and participates in their activities in order to know and feel their culture.
• Life History- This the study of the personal life of a person. Through a series of interviews, the researcher can probe into the decisive moments in their life or the various influences on their life. Participant research usually must be designed prior to the excursion to insure bias is reduced and the results can be meaningfully adduced.
• Longitudinal study- Extensive examination of a specific group over a long period of time is carried out in the case study method.
• Case study- A specific set of circumstances or group (the 'case') is analyzed according to a specific goal of study, or theory. Generally case studies are used to characterize a trend or development; they have weak generalizability. A long term case study is typically longitudinal in design.
• Interview Method- the researcher also obtains data by interviewing people. If the interview is non-structured, the researcher leaves it to the interviewee (also referred to as the respondent or the informant) to guide the conversation.
• Historical Method- This involves a continuous and systematic search for the information and knowledge about past events related to the life of a person, a group, society, or the world.
• Comparative Method- is a method used to detect genetic relationships between languages and to establish a consistent relationship hypothesis by reconstructing.
• Archival method- this is used to research recorded facts or factual evidences to help us be more knowledgeable.
• Content Analysis- this involves the analysis of how people communicate and the messages people talk or write about. This is usually used to study the contents of books and mass media and how they transmit messages.

Sociology and other social sciences

Sociology shares deep ties with a wide array of other disciplines that also deal with the study of society. The fields of economics, psychology, and anthropology have influenced and educated a great number of sociologists and the fields share a great amount of history.

Today sociology and the other sciences are better contrasted according to methodology rather than objects of study. Additonally, unlike sociology, psychology and anthropology have forensic components within these disciplines that deal with anatomy and other types of labratory research.

Sociobiology is the study of how social behavior and organization has been influenced by evolution and other biological processes. The field blends sociology with a number other sciences, such as anthropology, biology, zoology, and others. Although the field once rapidly gained acceptance, it has remained highly controversial within the sociological academy. . Sociologists often criticize the study for depending too greatly on the effects of genes in defining behavior. Sociobiologists often respond by citing a complex relationship between nature and nurture.-

See also

Lists

Main lists: List of basic sociology topics and List of sociology topics

• List of sociologists
• Subfields of sociology
• Timeline of sociology

References

• John J. Macionis, Sociology (10th Edition), Prentice Hall, 2004, ISBN 0-13-184918-2
• Stephen H. Aby, Sociology: A Guide to Reference and Information Sources. 3rd edn. Littleton, CO, Libraries Unlimited Inc., 2005, ISBN 1-56308-947-5

Further reading

• Babbie, Earl R. 2003. The Practice of Social Research, 10th edition. Wadsworth, Thomson Learning Inc., ISBN 0-534-62029-9
• Anthony Giddens. 1998. Conversations with Anthony Giddens, Polity, Cambridge. A useful introduction to core themes in classical and contemporary sociology.
• Anthony Giddens, Sociology, Polity, Cambridge
• Nisbet, Robert A. 1967. The Sociological Tradition, London, Heinemann Educational Books. ISBN 1-56000-667-6
• Ritzer, George and Douglas Goodman. 2004. Sociological Theory, Sixth Edition. McGraw Hill.
• Wallace, Ruth A. & Alison Wolf. 1995. Contemporary Sociological Theory: Continuing the Classical Tradition, 4th ed., Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-036245-X
• Evan Willis. 1996. The Sociological Quest: An introduction to the study of social life, 3rd edn, New Brunswick, NJ, Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-2367-2

External links

Professional associations:

• American Sociological Association (ASA)
• Australian Sociological Association (TASA)
• British Sociological Association (BSA)
• Canadian Sociological Association (CSA)
• International Sociological Association (ISA)

Other resources:

• Electronic Journal of Sociology
• History of Sociology
• Resources for methods in social research
• SocioSite - Social Sciences Information System
• Social theories and theorists
• Sociolog. Comprehensive Guide to Sociology
• ASA Student Forum Wiki - Wiki for sociology students run by ASA Student Forum