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Rabbit
Temporal range: Late Eocene – Holocene, 53–0 Ma
A small brown rabbit sat on the dirt in a forest. Its ears are small and alert and the tip of its nose, part of its chest and one of its feet are white.
European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Lagomorpha
Family: Leporidae
Included genera

Rabbits, also known as bunnies or bunny rabbits, are small mammals in the family Leporidae (which also includes the hares), which is in the order Lagomorpha (which also includes the pikas). Oryctolagus cuniculus is the European rabbit, including its descendants, the world's 305 breeds[1] of domestic rabbit. Sylvilagus includes 13 wild rabbit species, among them the seven types of cottontail. The European rabbit, which has been introduced on every continent except Antarctica, is familiar throughout the world as a wild prey animal, a domesticated form of livestock and a pet. With its widespread effect on ecologies and cultures, in many areas of the world, the rabbit is a part of daily life – as food, clothing, a companion, and a source of artistic inspiration.

Although once considered rodents, lagomorphs like rabbits have been discovered to have diverged separately and earlier than their rodent cousins and have a number of traits rodents lack, like two extra incisors.

Basic knowledge

Rabbits are a common mammals that live in forests, meadows, wetlands, grasslands, deserts, and even in your yard. Although they are wild animals, they can also be domesticated. There are many rabbit breeds that are specially designed to be both pets and show breeds, some of them being Holland lops, Lion heads, Flemish giants, Mini rex, and so many more. These rabbits are great house pets and usually live up to eight to twelve years old and require the same amount of attention as a cat would. Rabbits can be great pets, but there is a lot of information you should know before getting a rabbit as a pet such as their diet, housing, health, personality, and so much more.

Rabbit care

Diet

A rabbit's diet doesn't just consist of one food like a hamster, dog, or cat's may. Instead, rabbits are herbivores, which means their diet is based on consuming plants and not meat. However, their digestive system is a little more complex than just giving your pet rabbit plants three times a day. In fact, a rabbit's diet should consist of at least 80% hay. Their digestive tract is constantly running, meaning they need food at all times. Think of a cow or horse; they are constantly grazing on grass throughout the day. Like horses and cows, rabbits need access to hay at all times in order to stay healthy. There are many different hays you can buy, but try to choose a hay brand that is specifically for rabbits like Oxbow or Kaytee. These are both great choices to choose for your rabbit and provide plenty of nutrition that your rabbit needs.

The other 20% of a rabbit's diet and either consist of pellets or fresh vegetables, or both to give your rabbit a healthier lifestyle. Pellets provide that extra nutrition that your rabbit may not be getting from their hay. Some rabbit breeders feed their rabbits only pellets, and why it may not seem like a big deal, it is dangerous. Feeding your rabbit only pellets doesn't provide your rabbit enough wear for your rabbit's teeth, which will cause your rabbit's teeth to keep growing and growing until it becomes a dental issue; this is very painful for your rabbit, as their teeth never stop growing. Providing your rabbit a pellet-based diet only can also be damaging to your rabbit's health in other circumstances, such as weight gain. Rabbits love pellets and will eat them all day if available, which will result in a very plump rabbit. This causes other health problems like a shorter life-span. By giving your rabbit just a small amount of pellets a day (two tablespoons maximum), you reduce your rabbit's health risks.

Vegetables are also a great source of vitamins and nutrition that your rabbit is lacking from hay and pellets. Your rabbit should be consuming one vegetable a day that consists of Vitamin A and a wide range of vegetables, too. Great vegetables to give your rabbit are Romaine lettuce, Cilantro, Parsley, Brussel sprouts, Green peppers, Boc choy, and celery. Some other vegetables you can feed your rabbit (should only be given occasionally, as some are high in sugars) are carrots, collard greens, pea pods, and spinach. It should be noted that you should not give a rabbit vegetables unless they are over six months old; this is to confirm that their digestive tract can handle new foods, as their Gastrointestinal system is very delicate, especially when they are younger.

You may also purchase treats from the pet store that are designed for rabbits. A common treat are are treats from Oxbow. This is a great company that has low sugar in their treats as well as nutritious vitamins; these are great treats because other treats may have harmful high doses of sugar that may harm your rabbit in the future. Though these treats aren't harmful, you shouldn't give them more than twice a day.

Housing

There are a lot of things to consider when housing a rabbit. One of the most important things to consider when housing a rabbit is if you have enough room. A general rule of thumb is that a rabbit's area should be four-six times their size; this means many pet store cages that are "designed" for rabbits are not suitable. Rabbits are very active creatures, which means they run, hop, have zoomies, and stand on their hind legs when curious. A lot of pet store cages are only twice the size of a rabbit, if that. Think of a rabbit like a cat; you wouldn't put a cat in a cage all day, would you? Plus, bigger rabbits are about the size of cats! This doesn't mean you can't "cage" your rabbit. A lot of rabbit owners use Extra-large dog playpens to house their rabbit. This gives their rabbit room to play, explore, and hop around freely without having to worry about space. Some people use two or even three Extra-large dog playpens. The other option is to let your rabbit free roam. When some people think of free roaming, they may mistake it for your rabbit roaming your whole house; this is not the case. You can keep your rabbit in one room and have them free roam, as long as everything is protected, as rabbits are chewers, some more than others. If you do let your rabbit free roam, this also encourages individuals to keep their place organized and clean in fear that their rabbit may chew their belongings.

Rabbits need necessities other than a large area to wonder. First, they need a litter box. Yes, rabbits can be litter trained like cats! Rabbits prefer to do their business in one place, so the best litter box to get for your pet would be a regular cat litter box. This way, it is large enough for your rabbit to do their business and not worry about "overspilling". Although you are getting a cat litter box, do not get cat litter. Rabbits love to eat anything they can; they are simply curious. If they eat cat litter, it may result in clumping inside their stomach, resulting in a painful vet trip. Instead, use paper pellets that are made for cats, or wood pellets that dissolve. Rabbits also like to eat where they do their business, so many rabbit owners place their hay inside their litter box. Do not fret, as rabbits are smarter than you think; they will not eat their soiled hay.

Rabbits also need a water bowl. Pet stores make water bottles for rabbits, but these do not provide the rabbit with enough water throughout the day, even if you fill it up as much as possible. The water bottle is designed to not leak and has a ball on the nose of where the rabbit would drink. Rabbits drink a lot of water; sometimes as much as a small dog. By using a water bowl, this provides a good amount of water for your rabbit without having to fear that they will get dehydrated by the lack of water. Rabbits also need a food bowl to eat their vegetables and pellets out of, too.

Providing your pet with lots of toys can stimulate their brain, too. There are many toys you can give your rabbit, ranging from balls, chews, hide aways, tunnels, and more. A favorite among the rabbit community are baby stacking cups; by placing a few pellets or pieces of a treat in each of the cups then stacking them, you'll find that your rabbit throws the cups around with their teeth in order to eat the food they want! This stimulates their brain and is entertaining to watch. There are a variety of toys you can enrich your bunny with, just make sure to read the labels for toxic paint they may be able to chew on or other harmful ingredients.

Another thing to consider is making sure your rabbit has traction. Rabbits do not have padding on the bottoms of their paws like cats and dogs do, so they have a difficult time on hard surfaces. The hard surfaces may be hard on your bunny's paws, too, and will give your rabbit walking problems later on. Make sure to provide your pet with a large rug or blanket so they don't get sore hocks!

Health

Just as any other pet, a rabbit's health is crucial. You need to care for your rabbit if you want them to live a long and healthy life. By finding a rabbit savvy vet, you reduce your rabbit's health risks, as not a lot of veterinarians are rabbit-savvy. Once your rabbit is four months old (five months for female rabbits), you should heavily consider getting them neutered or spayed, depending on the gender of your rabbit. Even if you aren't going to bond you rabbit with another, getting your rabbit neutered or spayed decreases the chances of certain cancers.

Nail clipping is another large aspect of owning a rabbit. Their nails never stop growing, so it is important to clip your bunny's nails occasionally. If they are not clipped, this can cause your pet pain later int he future.

It should be noted that rabbits shed their winter coats in the spring, and shed their summer coats in the fall. This results in lots (and lots) of fur being lost. By brushing your rabbit, you help shed your rabbit's coat.

Your rabbit's Gastrointestinal tract is very sensitive and fragile. As stated throughout this article, rabbits eat throughout the day and graze on their hay like cows and horses, but they are much smaller. If they do not have access to food for more than eight hours, there can be serious problems that begin to develop in your rabbit's digestive tract. This is why you should not fast your rabbit before they undergo anesthesia for surgery. Although it is common to fast eight hours before undergoing anesthesia, it is important to know that rabbits do not throw up, there for there is no harm in eating right before surgery. If your veterinarian tells you you should not give your rabbit food a certain amount of hours prior to their surgery, find a new clinic. If a rabbit is restricted from their hay and/or other food like pellets or vegetables for a long period of time, it could be extremely harmful for them and even result in death. If your rabbit has stopped eating and will not eat their hay or pellets, this could be a sign that something is wrong with them and you should take them to a clinic as soon as possible.

Bonding

Rabbits are social creatures, which means if you aren't home the majority of the time, your rabbit may get lonely. It is important to consider if you are able to get a second rabbit to bond with your first if you know you won't be home a lot of the time. The bonding process can be quite tricky, as rabbits are sociable creatures, but not with rabbits they don't know.

The first step is getting your rabbits spayed and/or neutered. By getting them spayed and/or neutered, the hormones they have built up begin to subside after eight weeks. This reduces their aggression towards others and territorial behaviors. After you have waited eight weeks for your rabbits to completely heal and let this hormones drain, you will be ready to begin the bonding process.

The first step is to place them in a small space (no bigger than both rabbits to flop) and see how they react. Unfortunately, you cannot "slowly" introduce rabbits to one another, as their personalities are unpredictable. They need to be with each other until the bonding process is over; even then, separating rabbits - even for a short amount of time - may shatter their bond. Once they are in their small space (make sure to use a see-through grids or a piece of an Extra-large dog pen, as rabbits get scared if they cannot see beyond their enclosure), be ready to break up any fights. Typical behavior is thumping, mounting for dominance, and nipping. Thumping is alright, as it is a sign of being nervous or sensing a threat. Mounting is generally alright, as long as it's not in the front. Nipping is alright also, as long as it isn't excessive. Leave the rabbits in this space until they break out into fights or until you're ready to stop for the night. it should be noted that rabbits shouldn't be left alone together if they aren't bonded for a split second, as they are unpredictable. Be sure there is hay on the ground spread throughout the entire floor, as they need to constantly be eating!

Once they don't have any negative behaviors (nipping or fighting), you can increase the space a few inches. Keep increasing the cage space every couple days until the cage is about four - six times the size of the rabbits. Once there isn't any negative behavior, you can add in water bowls, toys, veggies, and chews. The reason it is not recommended to add these in the early stages of bonding is because rabbits are very territorial; they may claim a toy or water bowl, and fights may break out.

After this step, you may move them to their permeate home. If the begin any negative behavior, move them back to their bonding sessions. Do not worry if the bonding sessions take weeks; some rabbits are more stubborn than others, but eventually, they'll get there.

Personality

Rabbits have many different personalities; it is important to respect them. Some rabbits are cuddly, others hate being pet or held. Some rabbits are very energetic and skip and zoom around their area, others prefer to watch and snooze. It is important to know a few terms that all bunny owners should know:

Zoomies: Everyone should know this phrase if you have animals, but zoomies are usually bursts of energy and rabbits will run around, sometimes even in circles.

Binkies: Binkies are a rabbit thing. Basically, when a rabbit is very excited or happy, they will suddenly jump in the air with a little twist; literally!

Flop: When a rabbit is very content and feels safe in their area, they will either lay on their side with their stomach exposed or flat on their stomach with their front (and sometimes back) paws exposed like a pancake.

Thump: Thumping usually indicates a rabbit in distress. They will thump if they sense fear, danger, or are simply unhappy. Sometimes rabbits will thump at you for attention.

Mounting: Rabbits will mount one another to show dominance. This isn't generally a bad thing, as sometimes rabbits that have been bonded for years will mount one another to tell them that they are still in charge. If chasing occurs, split it up and consider the bonding process again to seal their bond once more.

All rabbits have different personalities. Do not worry if your rabbit doesn't flop or have the zoomies often, as rabbits are different in their own way. Some prefer other things, just like humans or other animals. Every rabbit has their own, unique personality! However, if you find that your rabbit is thumping a lot or is extremely skittish, observe your rabbit's actions and try to find the source of what is making them timid. There could be a various of reasons, some including children, other animals, changes in the environment, and more.Rabbits have incredible hearing; they can even hear animals outside, so they may be hearing things you cannot that are making them scared.

Terminology and etymology

A male rabbit is called a buck; a female is called a doe. An older term for an adult rabbit used until the 18th century is coney (derived ultimately from the Latin cuniculus), while rabbit once referred only to the young animals.[2] Another term for a young rabbit is bunny, though this term is often applied informally (particularly by children) to rabbits generally, especially domestic ones. More recently, the term kit or kitten has been used to refer to a young rabbit.

A group of rabbits is known as a colony or nest (or, occasionally, a warren, though this more commonly refers to where the rabbits live).[3] A group of baby rabbits produced from a single mating is referred to as a litter[4] and a group of domestic rabbits living together is sometimes called a herd.[5]

The word rabbit itself derives from the Middle English rabet, a borrowing from the Walloon robète, which was a diminutive of the French or Middle Dutch robbe.[6]

Taxonomy

See also: List of leporids

Rabbits and hares were formerly classified in the order Rodentia (rodent) until 1912, when they were moved into a new order, Lagomorpha (which also includes pikas). Below are some of the genera and species of the rabbit.

  • A small, round, dust-coloured rabbit with upright, close-set ears sat on the ground amidst dead branches.
    Brachylagus idahoensis
    Pygmy rabbit
  • A model of a relatively large rabbit, with a slightly longer face and shorter, rounder ears, and fur patterned black and gold.
    Nesolagus netscheri
    Sumatran Striped Rabbit
    (Model)
  • A small, light-brown rabbit with upright ears sat on some grass.
    Oryctolagus cuniculus
    European rabbit
    (Feral Tasmanian specimen)
  • A taxidermy of a large rabbit with dark brown fur, small, thin ears and an elongated, rodent-like face.
    Pentalagus furnessi
    Amami rabbit
    (Taxidermy specimen)
  • A taxidermy of a very small light-brown rabbit mid-gallop. Its features are equally small, appearing similar to a vole.
    Romerolagus diazi
    Volcano rabbit
    (Taxidermy specimen)
  • A juvenile rabbit sat on a white person's hand; its fur is a light brown ticked heavily with dark brown. It is not quite large enough to fill the person's hand completely.
    Sylvilagus aquaticus
    Swamp rabbit
    (Juvenile)
  • A medium-sized rabbit with light brown fur ticked with grey, its ears large and upright. It stands on all fours on some sandy ground.
    Sylvilagus audubonii
    Desert cottontail
  • A light-brown rabbit sitting in a field, its body unusually large and squat, its limbs and head small, and its ears especially small
    Sylvilagus bachmani
    Brush rabbit
  • A taxidermy of a small rabbit, its fur a warm brown ticked with a darker brown, its ears small and set back, its face closer to a vole's than a rabbit's
    Sylvilagus brasiliensis
    Tapeti
    (Taxidermy specimen)
  • A rabbit sitting upright in a field, turning to face the camera, its fur a light brown ticked with grey and dark brown, its ears upright
    Sylvilagus floridanus
    Eastern cottontail

Differences from hares

Main article: Hare
Hare
Johann Daniel Meyer (1748)
Rabbit
Johann Daniel Meyer (1748)

The term rabbit is typically used for all Leporidae species excluding the genus Lepus. Members of that genus are instead known as hares or jackrabbits.

Lepus species are typically precocial, born relatively mature and mobile with hair and good vision, while rabbit species are altricial, born hairless and blind. Hares & some rabbits live a relatively solitary life in a simple nest above the ground, while other rabbits live in social groups in burrows, which are grouped together to form warrens. Hares are generally larger than rabbits, with ears that are more elongated, and with hind legs that are larger and longer. Descendants of the European rabbit are commonly bred as livestock and kept as pets, whereas no hares have been domesticated – the breed called the Belgian hare is actually a domestic rabbit which has been selectively bred to resemble a hare.

Domestication

Main article: Domestic rabbit

Rabbits have long been domesticated. Beginning in the Middle Ages, the European rabbit has been widely kept as livestock, starting in ancient Rome. Selective breeding has generated a wide variety of rabbit breeds, of which many (since the early 19th century) are also kept as pets. Some strains of rabbit have been bred specifically as research subjects.

As livestock, rabbits are bred for their meat and fur. The earliest breeds were important sources of meat, and so became larger than wild rabbits, but domestic rabbits in modern times range in size from dwarf to giant. Rabbit fur, prized for its softness, can be found in a broad range of coat colors and patterns, as well as lengths. The Angora rabbit breed, for example, was developed for its long, silky fur, which is often hand-spun into yarn. Other domestic rabbit breeds have been developed primarily for the commercial fur trade, including the Rex, which has a short plush coat.

Biology

Wax models showing the development of the rabbit heart

Evolution

Because the rabbit's epiglottis is engaged over the soft palate except when swallowing, the rabbit is an obligate nasal breather. Rabbits have two sets of incisor teeth, one behind the other. This way they can be distinguished from rodents, with which they are often confused.[7] Another difference is that for rabbits, all of their teeth continue to grow, where as for most rodents, only their incisors continue to grow. Carl Linnaeus originally grouped rabbits and rodents under the class Glires; later, they were separated as the scientific consensus is that many of their similarities were a result of convergent evolution. Recent DNA analysis and the discovery of a common ancestor has supported the view that they share a common lineage, so rabbits and rodents are now often grouped together in the superorder Glires.[8]

Morphology

Skeleton of the rabbit

Since speed and agility are a rabbit's main defenses against predators (including the swift fox), rabbits have large hind leg bones and well-developed musculature. Though plantigrade at rest, rabbits are on their toes while running, assuming a more digitigrade posture. Rabbits use their strong claws for digging and (along with their teeth) for defense.[9] Each front foot has four toes plus a dewclaw. Each hind foot has four toes (but no dewclaw).[10]

Melanistic coloring
Oryctologus cuniculus
European rabbit (wild)

Most wild rabbits (especially compared to hares) have relatively full, egg-shaped bodies. The soft coat of the wild rabbit is agouti in coloration (or, rarely, melanistic), which aids in camouflage. The tail of the rabbit (with the exception of the cottontail species) is dark on top and white below. Cottontails have white on the top of their tails.[11]

As a result of the position of the eyes in its skull, the rabbit has a field of vision that encompasses nearly 360 degrees, with just a small blind spot at the bridge of the nose.[12]

Hind limb elements

This image comes from a specimen in the Pacific Lutheran University natural history collection. It displays all of the skeletal articulations of rabbit's hind limbs.

The anatomy of rabbits' hind limbs is structurally similar to that of other land mammals and contributes to their specialized form of locomotion. The bones of the hind limbs consist of long bones (the femur, tibia, fibula, and phalanges) as well as short bones (the tarsals). These bones are created through endochondral ossification during development. Like most land mammals, the round head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum of the os coxae. The femur articulates with the tibia, but not the fibula, which is fused to the tibia. The tibia and fibula articulate with the tarsals of the pes, commonly called the foot. The hind limbs of the rabbit are longer than the front limbs. This allows them to produce their hopping form of locomotion. Longer hind limbs are more capable of producing faster speeds. Hares, which have longer legs than cottontail rabbits, are able to move considerably faster.[13] Rabbits stay just on their toes when moving; this is called digitigrade locomotion. The hind feet have four long toes that allow for this and are webbed to prevent them from spreading when hopping.[14] Rabbits do not have paw pads on their feet like most other animals that use digitigrade locomotion. Instead, they have coarse compressed hair that offers protection.[15]

Musculature

The rabbit's hind limb (lateral view) includes muscles involved in the quadriceps and hamstrings.

Rabbits have muscled hind legs that allow for maximum force, maneuverability, and acceleration that is divided into three main parts: foot, thigh, and leg. The hind limbs of a rabbit are an exaggerated feature. They are much longer than the forelimbs, providing more force. Rabbits run on their toes to gain the optimal stride during locomotion. The force put out by the hind limbs is contributed by both the structural anatomy of the fusion tibia and fibula, and muscular features.[16] Bone formation and removal, from a cellular standpoint, is directly correlated to hind limb muscles. Action pressure from muscles creates force that is then distributed through the skeletal structures. Rabbits that generate less force, putting less stress on bones are more prone to osteoporosis due to bone rarefaction.[17] In rabbits, the more fibers in a muscle, the more resistant to fatigue. For example, hares have a greater resistance to fatigue than cottontails. The muscles of rabbit's hind limbs can be classified into four main categories: hamstrings, quadriceps, dorsiflexors, or plantar flexors. The quadriceps muscles are in charge of force production when jumping. Complementing these muscles are the hamstrings, which aid in short bursts of action. These muscles play off of one another in the same way as the plantar flexors and dorsiflexors, contributing to the generation and actions associated with force.[18]

Ears

Anatomy of mammalian ear
A Holland Lop resting with one ear up and one ear down. Some rabbits can adjust their ears to hear distant sounds.

Within the order lagomorphs, the ears are used to detect and avoid predators. In the family Leporidae, the ears are typically longer than they are wide. For example, in black tailed jack rabbits, their long ears cover a greater surface area relative to their body size that allow them to detect predators from far away. In contrast with cottontail rabbits, their ears are smaller and shorter, requiring that predators be closer before they can detect them and flee. Evolution has favored rabbits having shorter ears, so the larger surface area does not cause them to lose heat in more temperate regions. The opposite can be seen in rabbits that live in hotter climates; possessing longer ears with a larger surface area helps with dispersion of heat. Since sound travels less well in arid as opposed to cooler air, longer ears may aid the organism in detecting predators sooner rather than later, in warmer temperatures.[19][page needed] Rabbits are characterized by shorter ears than hares.[20][page needed] Rabbits' ears are an important structure to aid thermoregulation as well as in detecting predators due to the way the outer, middle, and inner ear muscles coordinate with one another. The ear muscles also aid in maintaining balance and movement when fleeing predators.[21]

Outer ear

The auricle, also known as the pinna, is a rabbit's outer ear.[22] The rabbit's pinnae represent a fair part of the body surface area. It is theorized that the ears aid in dispersion of heat at temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F), with rabbits in warmer climates having longer pinnae due to this. Another theory is that the ears function as shock absorbers that could aid and stabilize rabbits' vision when fleeing predators, but this has typically only been seen in hares.[23][page needed] The rest of the outer ear has bent canals that lead to the eardrum or tympanic membrane.[24]

Middle ear

The middle ear, separated by the outer eardrum in the back of the rabbit's skull, contains three bones: the hammer, anvil, and stirrup, collectively called ossicles, which act to decrease sound before it hits the inner ear; in general, the ossicles act as a barrier to the inner ear for sound energy.[24]

Inner ear

Inner ear fluid, called endolymph, receives the sound energy. After receiving the energy. The inner ear comprises two parts: the cochlea that uses sound waves from the ossicles, and the vestibular apparatus that manages the rabbit's position in regard to movement. Within the cochlea a basilar membrane contains sensory hair structures that send nerve signals to the brain, allowing it to recognize different sound frequencies. Within the vestibular apparatus three semicircular canals help detect angular motion.[24]

Dewlaps

A dewlap is a secondary sex characteristic in rabbits, caused by the presence of female sex hormones. They develop with puberty. A female rabbit who has been neutered before reaching sexual maturity will not develop a dewlap, and even if a doe is neutered after developing a dewlap, the dewlap will gradually disappear over several months. This also aligns with the results of injecting male rabbits with female sex hormones, specifically the ones from pregnant women's urine. The male rabbits developed dewlaps, which then gradually disappeared once administration had ceased.[25] (This is not the process of the rabbit test, a common way to test for human female pregnancy in the 20th century; the pregnancy test involved dissecting female rabbits after injection with urine to see if their ovaries had enlarged.)[26] While it is unclear exactly what function a dewlap performs, pregnant female rabbits will pluck fur from their dewlaps shortly before giving birth to line a nest for their young.[27]

Thermoregulation

The blood flow through the rabbit's large ears help with thermoregulation.

Thermoregulation is the process that an organism uses to maintain an optimal body temperature independent of external conditions.[28] This process is carried out by the pinnae, which takes up most of the rabbit's body surface and contain a vascular network and arteriovenous shunts.[29] In a rabbit, the optimal body temperature is around 38.5–40.0 °C (101.3–104.0 °F).[30] If their body temperature exceeds or does not meet this optimal temperature, the rabbit must return to homeostasis. Homeostasis of body temperature is maintained by the use of their large, highly vascularized ears that are able to change the amount of blood flow that passes through the ears.

Respiratory system

Ventral view of dissected rabbit lungs with key structures labeled.

The rabbit's nasal cavity lies dorsal to the oral cavity, and the two compartments are separated by the hard and soft palate.[31] The nasal cavity itself is separated into a left and right side by a cartilage barrier, and it is covered in fine hairs that trap dust before it can enter the respiratory tract.[31][32][page needed] As the rabbit breathes, air flows in through the nostrils along the alar folds. From there, the air moves into the nasal cavity, also known as the nasopharynx, down through the trachea, through the larynx, and into the lungs.[32][page needed][33] The larynx functions as the rabbit's voice box, which enables it to produce a wide variety of sounds.[32][page needed] The trachea is a long tube embedded with cartilaginous rings that prevent the tube from collapsing as air moves in and out of the lungs. The trachea then splits into a left and right bronchus, which meet the lungs at a structure called the hilum. From there, the bronchi split into progressively more narrow and numerous branches. The bronchi branch into bronchioles, into respiratory bronchioles, and ultimately terminate at the alveolar ducts. The branching that is typically found in rabbit lungs is a clear example of monopodial branching, in which smaller branches divide out laterally from a larger central branch.[34]

The structure of the rabbit's nasal and oral cavities necessitates breathing through the nose. This is due to the fact that the epiglottis is fixed to the backmost portion of the soft palate.[33] Within the oral cavity, a layer of tissue sits over the opening of the glottis, which blocks airflow from the oral cavity to the trachea.[31] The epiglottis functions to prevent the rabbit from aspirating on its food. Further, the presence of a soft and hard palate allow the rabbit to breathe through its nose while it feeds.[32][page needed]

Monopodial branching as seen in dissected rabbit lungs.

Rabbits' lungs are divided into four lobes: the cranial, middle, caudal, and accessory lobes. The right lung is made up of all four lobes, while the left lung only has two: the cranial and caudal lobes.[34] To provide space for the heart, the left cranial lobe of the lungs is significantly smaller than that of the right.[31] The diaphragm is a muscular structure that lies caudal to the lungs and contracts to facilitate respiration.[31][33]


Digestion

Rabbits are herbivores that feed by grazing on grass and other leafy plants. Consequently, their diet contains large amounts of cellulose, which is hard to digest. Rabbits solve this problem via a form of hindgut fermentation. They pass two distinct types of feces: hard droppings and soft black viscous pellets, the latter of which are known as caecotrophs or "night droppings"[35] and are immediately eaten (a behaviour known as coprophagy). Rabbits reingest their own droppings (rather than chewing the cud as do cows and numerous other herbivores) to digest their food further and extract sufficient nutrients.[36]

Rabbits graze heavily and rapidly for roughly the first half-hour of a grazing period (usually in the late afternoon), followed by about half an hour of more selective feeding.[37] In this time, the rabbit will also excrete many hard fecal pellets, being waste pellets that will not be reingested.[citation needed] If the environment is relatively non-threatening, the rabbit will remain outdoors for many hours, grazing at intervals.[citation needed] The rabbit will occasionally reingest its soft, partially digested pellets; this is rarely observed, since the pellets are reingested as they are produced.[citation needed]

Hard pellets are made up of hay-like fragments of plant cuticle and stalk, being the final waste product after redigestion of soft pellets. These are only released outside the burrow or form and are not reingested. Soft pellets are usually produced several hours after grazing, after the hard pellets have all been excreted.[citation needed] They are made up of micro-organisms and undigested plant cell walls.[citation needed]

Rabbits are hindgut digesters. This means that most of their digestion takes place in their large intestine and cecum. In rabbits, the cecum is about 10 times bigger than the stomach and it along with the large intestine makes up roughly 40% of the rabbit's digestive tract.[38] The unique musculature of the cecum allows the intestinal tract of the rabbit to separate fibrous material from more digestible material; the fibrous material is passed as feces, while the more nutritious material is encased in a mucous lining as a cecotrope. Cecotropes, sometimes called "night feces", are high in minerals, vitamins and proteins that are necessary to the rabbit's health. Rabbits eat these to meet their nutritional requirements; the mucous coating allows the nutrients to pass through the acidic stomach for digestion in the intestines. This process allows rabbits to extract the necessary nutrients from their food.[39]

The chewed plant material collects in the large cecum, a secondary chamber between the large and small intestine containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. The pellets are about 56% bacteria by dry weight, largely accounting for the pellets being 24.4% protein on average. The soft feces form here and contain up to five times the vitamins of hard feces. After being excreted, they are eaten whole by the rabbit and redigested in a special part of the stomach. The pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach; the bacteria within continue to digest the plant carbohydrates. This double-digestion process enables rabbits to use nutrients that they may have missed during the first passage through the gut, as well as the nutrients formed by the microbial activity and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat.[11] This process serves the same purpose in the rabbit as rumination does in cattle and sheep.[40]

Dissected image of the male rabbit reproductive system with key structures labeled

Because rabbits cannot vomit,[41] if buildup occurs within the intestines (due often to a diet with insufficient fibre),[42] intestinal blockage can occur.[43]

Reproduction

Diagram of the male rabbit reproductive system with main components labeled

The adult male reproductive system forms the same as most mammals with the seminiferous tubular compartment containing the Sertoli cells and an adluminal compartment that contains the Leydig cells.[44] The Leydig cells produce testosterone, which maintains libido[44] and creates secondary sex characteristics such as the genital tubercle and penis. The Sertoli cells triggers the production of Anti-Müllerian duct hormone, which absorbs the Müllerian duct. In an adult male rabbit, the sheath of the penis is cylinder-like and can be extruded as early as two months of age.[45] The scrotal sacs lay lateral to the penis and contain epididymal fat pads which protect the testes. Between 10 and 14 weeks, the testes descend and are able to retract into the pelvic cavity to thermoregulate.[45] Furthermore, the secondary sex characteristics, such as the testes, are complex and secrete many compounds. These compounds include fructose, citric acid, minerals, and a uniquely high amount of catalase.[44]

Diagram of the female rabbit reproductive system with main components labeled.

The adult female reproductive tract is bipartite, which prevents an embryo from translocating between uteri.[46] The two uterine horns communicate to two cervixes and forms one vaginal canal. Along with being bipartite, the female rabbit does not go through an estrus cycle, which causes mating induced ovulation.[45]

The average female rabbit becomes sexually mature at three to eight months of age and can conceive at any time of the year for the duration of her life. Egg and sperm production can begin to decline after three years.[44] During mating, the male rabbit will mount the female rabbit from behind and insert his penis into the female and make rapid pelvic hip thrusts. The encounter lasts only 20–40 seconds and after, the male will throw himself backwards off the female.[47]

The rabbit gestation period is short and ranges from 28 to 36 days with an average period of 31 days. A longer gestation period will generally yield a smaller litter while shorter gestation periods will give birth to a larger litter. The size of a single litter can range from four to 12 kits allowing a female to deliver up to 60 new kits a year. After birth, the female can become pregnant again as early as the next day.[45]

After mating, in some species, hormonal changes will cause the doe to begin to dig a burrow for her nest about a week before giving birth. Between three days and a few hours before giving birth another series of hormonal changes will cause her to prepare the nest structure. The doe will first gather grass for a structure, and an elevation in prolactin shortly before birth will cause her fur to shed that the doe will then use to line the nest, providing insulation for the newborn kits.[48]

The mortality rates of embryos are high in rabbits and can be due to infection, trauma, poor nutrition and environmental stress so a high fertility rate is necessary to counter this.[45]

Sleep

Further information: Sleep (non-human)

Rabbits may appear to be crepuscular, but their natural inclination is toward nocturnal activity.[49] In 2011, the average sleep time of a rabbit in captivity was calculated at 8.4 hours per day.[50] As with other prey animals, rabbits often sleep with their eyes open, so that sudden movements will awaken the rabbit to respond to potential danger.[51]

Diseases and immunity

See also: Category:Rabbit diseases

In addition to being at risk of disease from common pathogens such as Bordetella bronchiseptica and Escherichia coli, rabbits can contract the virulent, species-specific viruses RHD ("rabbit hemorrhagic disease", a form of calicivirus)[52] or myxomatosis. Among the parasites that infect rabbits are tapeworms (such as Taenia serialis), external parasites (including fleas and mites), coccidia species, and Toxoplasma gondii.[53][54] Domesticated rabbits with a diet lacking in high fiber sources, such as hay and grass, are susceptible to potentially lethal gastrointestinal stasis.[55] Rabbits and hares are almost never found to be infected with rabies and have not been known to transmit rabies to humans.[56]

Encephalitozoon cuniculi, an obligate intracellular parasite is also capable of infecting many mammals including rabbits.

Rabbit immunity has significantly diverged from other tetrapods in the manner it employs immunoglobulin light chains.[57][58] In one case McCartney-Francis et al., 1984 discover a unique additional disulfide bond between Cys 80 in Vκ and Cys 171 in Cκ.[57][58] They suggest that this may serve to stabilise rabbit antibodies.[57][58] Meanwhile IGKC1 shows high amino acid divergence between domesticated types and ferals derived from them.[58] This can be as high as 40%.[58]

Rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD) is caused by strains of rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) including type 2 (RHDV2).[59] RHDV2 was detected for the first time in Washington state, US in May 2022 and then in August once in Washington and twice in Oregon.[60] Since then, it has spread to many states in the US.

Ecology

Rabbit kits one hour after birth

Rabbits are prey animals and are therefore constantly aware of their surroundings. For instance, in Mediterranean Europe, rabbits are the main prey of red foxes, badgers, and Iberian lynxes.[61] If confronted by a potential threat, a rabbit may freeze and observe then warn others in the warren with powerful thumps on the ground. Rabbits have a remarkably wide field of vision, and a good deal of it is devoted to overhead scanning.[62] The doe (mother) is aware that she gives off scent which can attract predators, so she will stay away from the nest to avoid putting the kits (babies) in danger, returning the nest only a few times a day to feed the kits.[63]

Rabbits survive predation by burrowing (some species), hopping away in a zig-zag motion, and, if captured, delivering powerful kicks with their hind legs. Their strong teeth allow them to eat and to bite to escape a struggle.[64] The longest-lived rabbit on record, a domesticated European rabbit living in Tasmania, died at age 18.[65] The lifespan of wild rabbits is much shorter; the average longevity of an eastern cottontail, for instance, is less than one year.[66]

Habitat and range

Domestic rabbit photographed at Alligator Bay, Beauvoir, France.

Rabbit habitats include meadows, woods, forests, grasslands, deserts and wetlands.[67] While some rabbits live solitary lives, others live in groups, and the best known species, the European rabbit, lives in burrows, or rabbit holes. A group of burrows is called a warren.[67]

More than half the world's rabbit population resides in North America.[67] They are also native to southwestern Europe, Southeast Asia, Sumatra, some islands of Japan, and in parts of Africa and South America. They are not naturally found in most of Eurasia, where a number of species of hares are present. Rabbits first entered South America relatively recently, as part of the Great American Interchange. Much of the continent has just one species of rabbit, the tapeti, while most of South America's Southern Cone is without rabbits.

The European rabbit has been introduced to many places around the world.[11] A recent study found that "the (so-called) Chinese rabbits were introduced from Europe. Genetic diversity in Chinese rabbits was very low."[68]

Rabbits have been launched into space orbit.[69]

Environmental problems

See also: Rabbits in Australia
Impact of rabbit-proof fence, Cobar, New South Wales, 1905

Rabbits have been a source of environmental problems when introduced into the wild by humans. As a result of their appetites, and the rate at which they breed, feral rabbit depredation can be problematic for agriculture. Gassing (fumigation of warrens),[70] barriers (fences), shooting, snaring, and ferreting have been used to control rabbit populations, but the most effective measures are diseases such as myxomatosis (myxo or mixi, colloquially) and calicivirus. In Europe, where rabbits are farmed on a large scale, they are protected against myxomatosis and calicivirus with a genetically modified virus. The virus was developed in Spain, and is beneficial to rabbit farmers. If it were to make its way into wild populations in areas such as Australia, it could create a population boom, as those diseases are the most serious threats to rabbit survival. Rabbits in Australia and New Zealand are considered to be such a pest that land owners are legally obliged to control them.[71][72]

Rabbits are known to be able to catch fire and spread wildfires, but the efficiency and relevance of this method has been doubted by forest experts who contend that a rabbit on fire could move some meters.[73][74] Knowledge on fire-spreading rabbits is based on anecdotes as there is no known scientific investigation on the subject.[74]

As food and clothing

Main article: Cuniculture
See also: Category:Rabbit dishes

In some areas, wild rabbits and hares are hunted for their meat, a lean source of high quality protein.[75] In the wild, such hunting is accomplished with the aid of trained falcons, ferrets, or dogs, as well as with snares or other traps, and rifles. A caught rabbit may be dispatched with a sharp blow to the back of its head, a practice from which the term rabbit punch is derived.

Wild leporids comprise a small portion of global rabbit-meat consumption. Domesticated descendants of the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) that are bred and kept as livestock (a practice called cuniculture) account for the estimated 200 million tons of rabbit meat produced annually.[76] Approximately 1.2 billion rabbits are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide.[77] In 1994, the countries with the highest consumption per capita of rabbit meat were Malta with 8.89 kg (19.6 lb), Italy with 5.71 kg (12.6 lb), and Cyprus with 4.37 kg (9.6 lb), falling to 0.03 kg (0.07 lb) in Japan. The figure for the United States was 0.14 kg (0.31 lb) per capita. The largest producers of rabbit meat in 1994 were China, Russia, Italy, France, and Spain.[78] Rabbit meat was once a common commodity in Sydney, but declined after the myxomatosis virus was intentionally introduced to control the exploding population of feral rabbits in the area.

In the United Kingdom, fresh rabbit is sold in butcher shops and markets, and some supermarkets sell frozen rabbit meat. At farmers markets there, including the famous Borough Market in London, rabbit carcasses are sometimes displayed hanging, unbutchered (in the traditional style), next to braces of pheasant or other small game. Rabbit meat is a feature of Moroccan cuisine, where it is cooked in a tajine with "raisins and grilled almonds added a few minutes before serving".[79] In China, rabbit meat is particularly popular in Sichuan cuisine, with its stewed rabbit, spicy diced rabbit, BBQ-style rabbit, and even spicy rabbit heads, which have been compared to spicy duck neck.[76] Rabbit meat is comparatively unpopular elsewhere in the Asia-Pacific.

An extremely rare infection associated with rabbits-as-food is tularemia (also known as rabbit fever), which may be contracted from an infected rabbit.[80] Hunters are at higher risk for tularemia because of the potential for inhaling the bacteria during the skinning process.

In addition to their meat, rabbits are used for their wool, fur, and pelts, as well as their nitrogen-rich manure and their high-protein milk.[81] Production industries have developed domesticated rabbit breeds (such as the well-known Angora rabbit) to efficiently fill these needs.

Behaviors

Binkies in rabbits are characterized by a sudden kick with their hind legs, shaking their head sideways (usually mid-air), and running around rapidly; usually called zooming. Another term is half binky, which is characterized by a shorter span sharp flick of its head, both types of binkies indicate happiness or excitement. All of which typically only last for around a second. A rabbit might do quick rapid multiple binkies in one session. It's thought to be a practice run in case they need to escape from danger.[82] Such behavior commonly occurs in domesticated rabbits living in a comfortable environment, e.g. in home.[83]

Rabbits mostly use full-body actions, like flopping to communicate emotion to other rabbits and humans. Rabbit displaying flopping in front of other rabbits can be meant as a non-aggressive insult.[84][85] Rabbits commonly smell the ground first, then tilt their head to the side with a subtle jerky movement in order to lie down to its side, which exposes their belly.

They may thump their hind feet on the ground to signal other rabbits that they're feeling threatened or that potential dangers are near their territory. Some domesticated rabbits might thump to get their owner's attention. Not all rabbits thump.[86]

Both sexes of rabbits often rub their chin to objects or people with their scent gland located under the chin. This is the rabbit's way of marking their territory or possessions for other rabbits to recognize by depositing scent gland secretions, similar to what cats and dogs do. It might also serve as a reminder for the rabbit to return and investigate the object later, helping them navigate in the dark and to help them in their recollection of where they have been. Rabbits who have bonded will respect each other's smell that indicates territorial border.[87][88]

In art, literature, and culture

Main article: Rabbits and hares in art

Rabbits are often used as a symbol of fertility or rebirth, and have long been associated with spring and Easter as the Easter Bunny. The species' role as a prey animal with few defenses evokes vulnerability and innocence, and in folklore and modern children's stories, rabbits often appear as sympathetic characters, able to connect easily with youth of all kinds (for example, the Velveteen Rabbit, or Thumper in Bambi).

With its reputation as a prolific breeder, the rabbit juxtaposes sexuality with innocence, as in the Playboy Bunny. The rabbit (as a swift prey animal) is also known for its speed, agility, and endurance, symbolized (for example) by the marketing icons the Energizer Bunny and the Duracell Bunny.

Folklore

Main article: List of fictional hares and rabbits

The rabbit often appears in folklore as the trickster archetype, as he uses his cunning to outwit his enemies.

The rabbit as trickster is a part of American popular culture, as Br'er Rabbit (from African-American folktales and, later, Disney animation) and Bugs Bunny (the cartoon character from Warner Bros.), for example.

Anthropomorphized rabbits have appeared in film and literature, in Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (the White Rabbit and the March Hare characters), in Watership Down (including the film and television adaptations), in Rabbit Hill (by Robert Lawson), and in the Peter Rabbit stories (by Beatrix Potter). In the 1920s Oswald the Lucky Rabbit was a popular cartoon character.

A rabbit's foot may be carried as an amulet, believed to bring protection and good luck. This belief is found in many parts of the world, with the earliest use being recorded in Europe c. 600 BC.[91]

On the Isle of Portland in Dorset, UK, the rabbit is said to be unlucky and even speaking the creature's name can cause upset among older island residents. This is thought to date back to early times in the local quarrying industry where (to save space) extracted stones that were not fit for sale were set aside in what became tall, unstable walls. The local rabbits' tendency to burrow there would weaken the walls and their collapse resulted in injuries or even death. Thus, invoking the name of the culprit became an unlucky act to be avoided. In the local culture to this day, the rabbit (when he has to be referred to) may instead be called a "long ears" or "underground mutton", so as not to risk bringing a downfall upon oneself.[92]

In other parts of Britain and in North America, invoking the rabbit's name may instead bring good luck. "Rabbit rabbit rabbit" is one variant of an apotropaic or talismanic superstition that involves saying or repeating the word "rabbit" (or "rabbits" or "white rabbits" or some combination thereof) out loud upon waking on the first day of each month, because doing so will ensure good fortune for the duration of that month.[93]

The "rabbit test" is a term, first used in 1949, for the Friedman test, an early diagnostic tool for detecting a pregnancy in humans. It is a common misconception (or perhaps an urban legend) that the test-rabbit would die if the woman was pregnant. This led to the phrase "the rabbit died" becoming a euphemism for a positive pregnancy test.[94]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ This genus is considered a hare, not a rabbit

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Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rabbits.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Rabbit.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Rabbit".
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