History of Cleveland
This article chronicles the history of Cleveland, Ohio.
Early Years: 1796–1860
As one of thirty-six founders of the Connecticut Land Company, General Moses Cleaveland was selected as one of its seven directors and was subsequently sent out as the company's agent to map and survey the company's holdings. On July 22, 1796, Cleaveland and his surveyors arrived at the mouth of the Cuyahoga River. Cleaveland quickly saw the land, which had previously been acquired by Native Americans, as an ideal location for the "capital city" of the Connecticut Western Reserve. Cleaveland and his surveyors quickly began making plans for the new city. He paced out a ten-acre Public Square, similar to those in New England. His surveyors decided upon the name, Cleaveland, after their leader. In October, Cleaveland and his staff returned to Connecticut where he pursued his ambition in political, military, and law affairs, never once returning to the settlement he had established. The spelling of the city's name may have been changed in 1831 by The Cleveland Advertiser, an early city newspaper. The story is that in order for the name to fit on newspaper's masthead, the first "a" was dropped, reducing the city's name to Cleveland. Another account is that the spelling changes came from an error on a surveyor's map. The new spelling stuck, and long outlasted the Advertiser itself.
Though not initially apparent—the city was surrounded by swampland and the harsh winters did not encourage settlement—the location proved providential. The city began to grow rapidly after the completion of the Ohio and Erie Canal in 1832, turning the city into a key link between the Ohio River and the Great Lakes, and particularly once the city railroad links were added. In 1822, a young, charismatic lawyer and politician, John W. Willey came to Cleveland and quickly became intimately tied with the city. He became a popular figure in local politics and wrote the Cleveland Municpal Charter as well as several of the city's orginal laws and ordinances. Willey was then elected the first mayor of Cleveland for two terms.
With James Clark and several others, Willey bought a section of the Flats with plans to transform it into Cleveland Centre, a business and residential district. Willey then bought a piece of land from the southeast section of Ohio City across from Columbus St. in Cleveland. Willey named the new territory Willeyville and subsequently built a bridge connecting the two sections calling it Columbus Sreet Bridge. The bridge siphoned off commercial traffic to Cleveland before it could reach Ohio City's mercantile district. This action aggravated citizens of Ohio City, and brought to surface the fierce rivalry between the small city and Cleveland. Ohio City citizens rallied for "Two Bridges or None!" and on October 1836, they sought, violently, to stop the use of Cleveland's new bridge by bombing the western end of it. The explosion, however, did little damage. A group of 1,000 Ohio City volunteers began digging deep ditches at both ends of the bridge, making it impossible for horses and wagons to reach the structure. Some citizens were still unsatisfied with this and took to using guns, crowbars, axes, and other weapons to finish off the bridge. They were then met by Willey and a group of armed Cleveland militiamen. A battle ensued on the bridge, with two men seriously wounded before the county sheriff arrived to end the violence and arrest many. A court injunction prevented any further confrontations to take place that may have lead to an all out war between Cleveland and Ohio City. The two cities eventually made amends and due to further economic issues, Ohio City became annexed by Cleveland in 1854.
The Columbus bridge became one of the most vital assets for Cleveland. As a halfway point for iron ore coming from Minnesota across the Great Lakes and for coal and other raw materials coming by rail from the south, the site flourished. Cleveland became one of the major manufacturing and population centers of the United States, and was home to numerous major steel firms.
The Civil War and Post-Civil War Years: 1861–1898
Prior to the American Civil War, Clevelanders viewed the slaveholding South based on political affiliation. While a majority of Clevelanders tended to side with the abolitionist North, not all of them loathed slavery, nor were they all convinced that a civil war would resolve ideological differences between North and South. As election year approached and impending clouds of war loomed, rhetoric of Cleveland's local newspapers became increasingly divided. For example, The Cleveland Herald and Gazette and The Cleveland Leader, both largely Republican papers argued that southern actions had driven John Brown to raid Harpers Ferry on October 1859. The Plain Dealer, a largely Democratic publication blamed Brown and abolitionist Republicans for the raid.
When Abraham Lincoln won 58% of the vote in 9 of 11 wards for the presidency, the partisan rhetoric of Cleveland newspapers became more and more aggressive, as the secession crisis loomed closer. The Herald celebrated Lincoln's victory as one of right over wrong, of Unionists over secession-minded southern Democrats, while the Leader dismissed threats of the South's secession. The Plain Dealer, meanwhile argued that secession was eminent. When war finally did break out on April 1861, Cleveland Democrats and Republicans decided to end their dispute and united to form the Union party to support Lincoln's war effort. However, this coalition did not go untested.
The Civil War years brought an economic boom to Cleveland. The city was making the transition from a small town to an industrial giant. Railroad iron and gun-carriage axles were manfactured for military use. Due to the cutoff of Southern trade, Cleveland opened its first tobacco factory, T. Maxfield & Co., in 1862. The city's garment industry also began to prosper. The German Woolen Factory (also in 1862) became the first company to manufacture wool cloth in Cleveland. By 1865, ity banks held $2.25 million in capital and $3.7 million in deposits. In 1863, 22% of all U.S. Naval crafts built for use on the Great Lakes were built in Cleveland. That figure increased by 1865 to 44%.
Civilian aid to the military centered around establishment and maintenance of the Soldiers' Aid Society of Northern Ohio (1861), the U.S. General Hospital (1862), Camp Taylor (1861), and Camp Cleveland (1862). Food, blankets, and reading material were provided by citizens to recruits at both military camps until government stores and equipment could be distributed.
When the war ended, Cleveland welcomed home troops after service in the field, treating them to a meal and a short welcoming ceremony on Public Square before they marched to Camp Cleveland for payment and discharge from the army. Those Clevelanders who died in the war were honored at Woodland Cemetery with the memorials commemorating the 7th Ohio Volunteer Infantry Regiment and the 23rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry Regiment.
The issue of full emanicpation still lingered about. The Harold and the Leader supported the proposed Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, commending Lincoln for the "for the stalwart blow he struck for freedom and for the peace and future tranquility of the Union." The Plain Dealer, on the other hand, argued that the only purpose of the war was to preserve the union and that making "citizens of the entire black population" would ultimately tarnished the white race.
A major post-war issue for Cleveland was the overgrowth in population. This brought forth several urban issues, such as the need for efficient police and fire protection, decent housing, public education, health services, transportation, and an improved network of roads and streets. Such issues continued to concern city planners into the 20th century. However, by 1870, Cleveland had a population of 92,829 and made a successful entry into the industrial revolution. This was all the result of the prosperity experienced during the Civil War. Cleveland was now a manufacturing giant and spawned many technological innovations.
A New Era: Progressivism in Cleveland: 1899–1961
After a period of relatively lax mayors, the Cleveland voters decided to go with something different. In 1899, progressive Democrat, Tom L. Johnson was elected as the city's new mayor. Johnson brought Cleveland into the 20th century with sweeping reforms for "home rule, three-cent fare, and just taxation". He initiated the Group Plan of 1903 as well as the Cleveland Mall, the earliest and most complete civic-center plan for a major city outside of Washington, DC. With cabinet members Newton D. Baker and Harris R. Cooley, Johnson also reformed and professionalized city hall.
Despite Johnson's defeat against Republican Herman C. Baehr and his subsequent death, fellow progressive Newton D. Baker successfully picked up where he left off. Baker, like Johnson was an active supporter of home rule and even helped write the 1912 Ohio constitutional amendment giving municipalities the right to govern themselves. By campaigning for its passage in 1913, Baker became largely influential in selecting the commission to write Cleveland's first home rule charter. In 1916, Baker declined to run for a third term and instead returned to private practice of law. Baker was succeeded by Harry L. Davis for the mayorship. Davis established the Mayor's Advisory War Committee, formed 1917 to increase efficiency of money, time, and effort. He appointed the committee to plan ways in which Cleveland could assist with aiding the American effort in World War I. The effort gained national recognition. However, after the war ended in 1918, and with the formation of the Soviet Union, there began a new threat – the first Red Scare. One of the great dilemmas faced by Davis was trying to restore order during the violent Cleveland May Day Riots of 1919. With the issue of the riots and his own ambitions to become governor of Ohio, Davis resigned in May 1920.
Throughout the 1920s, Cleveland, like most other major cities was experiencing a substantial period of prosperity. This became evident when Cleveland was noted as the fifth largest city in the United States. Cleveland had three different mayors during this period. The most distinguished of which was William R. Hopkins. A Republican, Hopkins made several reforms during his reign including the devlopment of parks and the Cleveland Municipal Airport (later renamed Hopkins International Airport), and improved welfare institutions. Hopkins' most noteworthy achievement was overseeing the construction of the Cleveland Union Terminal and more specfically, the great Terminal Tower in 1927, one of Cleveland's most significant landmarks. Until 1967, the tower was the tallest building in the world outside of New York City. However, like all major cities, Cleveland suffered greatly from the Great Depression. However, it made a steady recovery, especially under the mayoral administration of Harold Hitz Burton.
In 1942, Frank Lausche became Cleveland's new mayor, succeeding Edward Blythin, who became mayor shortly after Burton resigned for a seat in the United States Senate. Lausche, Cleveland's first mayor of Eastern European descent, was notable for organizing the Cleveland Transit System as well as overseeing the city's development during World War II and making plans for after the war with his Post War Planning Council. Lausche went on to become the governor of Ohio, and was succeeded by Thomas A. Burke for mayor. Burke presided over the most prosperous period in Cleveland's history (it now had a population of 914,808, making the city the "best location of the nation"). Cleveland's post-war period also saw the city's successes in sports with the Cleveland Indians winning the World Series in 1948 and the Cleveland Browns dominating the NFL from 1950 to 1956. Burke is best remembered for his large capital-improvement program that included the establishment of the Cleveland Burke Lakefront Airport. Burke was then succeeded by Anthony J. Celebrezze Sr., a progressive Democrat. Celebrezze wanted to promote the city as a world trade center and did so by establishing the Cleveland Seaport Foundation. This was just one of Celebrezze's many achivements as mayor. He was so popular with the voters that he served an unprecedented five terms before retiring to work as the U.S. Secretary for Health, Education, and Welfare under John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson.
Modern History: 1962–Present
Ralph S. Locher became Celebrezze's successor in 1962. Although Locher made some progress such as helping expand Hopkins Airport, his tenure is strained by the racial turmoil the city was facing during the decade. It was Hough Riots of 1966 that culminated the city's racial unrest. The event was the most violent spectacle to take place in the city since the May Day Riots. Four were killed; several injured and about 240 fires were reported. Locher was slowly becoming less and less popular for the citizens and had lost the 1967 nonpartisan mayoral primary to Democrat Carl B. Stokes and Republican Seth Taft. Stokes went on to successfully win the election, and become the first African American mayor of a major city, attracting national attention.
As mayor, Stokes began initating progressive reforms to boost the city's economy and aid its poverty-stricken areas. He first persuaded the Department of Housing and Urban Development to release urban renewal funds frozen under Locher. He persuaded city council to pass the Equal Employment Opportunity Ordinance and to increase the city's income tax from .5% to 1%. Stokes also launched Cleveland: Now!, a program aimed at rehabilitating the city. It was highly successful. However, when the Glenville Shootout, it was discovered that Fred (Ahmed) Evans and his black militant group who had initated the chaos, received money from Cleveland: Now!, putting Stokes in a bad position. It was because of this incident and controversy surrounding to build public housing in the Lee-Seville area, that lead Stokes to decline from running for a third term.
Ralph Perk became the city's next mayor, the first Republican to serve since Harold Hitz Burton. Perk's political affliation lead to good connections with president Richard Nixon. He obtained federal funds to help aid the Cleveland economy and a grant of $22 million to help crack down on city crime. Perk also had a reputation for being tough on labor unions (the fire fighters union especially). Perk also became a source of ridicule when his hair caught on fire during one occasion and his wife, Lucille famously refused a dinner invitation of Pat Nixon for her "bowling night." Unfortunately, Perk could not create any long-term solutions to help the city's economy and lost the nonpartisan primary.
Dennis Kucinich went on to win both the primary and the general elections. Kucinich was 31 when he was elected mayor, making him the youngest mayor of a major city in the United States. However, despite his election victories, Kucinich's mayoral administration was no celebration.
Part of Kucinich's promise to the city was to cancel the sale of the publicly owned electric company, Municipal Light, to the Cleveland Electric Illuminating Company (CEI), a private electric company. The sale was iniated by Perk, but when Kucinich came to office, that all changed.
When he cancelled the sale, CEI went to a United States federal court to demand that Muny Light pay $15 million in damages for the power it had purchased and to get an order attaching city equipment. Quickly, Kucinich attempted to pay the bill by cutting city spending. However, Cleveland Trust, Ohio's largest bank told him that they would not renew the city's credit on $15,000,000 (USD) of loans taken out by the previous administration unless Kucinich would agree to sell. As it happened, Kucinich did not sell and at midnight on December 15, 1978, Cleveland Trust put Cleveland into default, turning the "boy wonder" to a "boy blunder".
With the CEI-Muny Light incident, the humorous situations surrounding Ralph Perk, and a 1969 fire on the Cuyahoga River where the oil and waste on the river's surface caught on fire, national media began referring to Cleveland as "the mistake on the lake" (a play on the previous "best location of the nation" phrase used during the 1950s and 1960s). The city has struggled to shed this nickname ever since, though in recent times the national media have been much kinder to the city. Kucinich's popularity plummeted. He narrowly escaped a recall, and came in second in the mayoral primaries, only to be defeated by Republican George Voinovich who called for a "return to normalcy".
Voinovich brought the city out of its major economic problems bringing about a downtown revitalization and urban renaissance. He oversaw the construction of Richard and David Jacobs' Key Tower, which surpassed the previous Terminal Tower in height. Voinovich's successor was another progressive figure in Cleveland politics and the second African American to become mayor, Michael White. Redevelopment within the city limits has been strongest in the downtown area near the Gateway complex—consisting of Jacobs Field and Quicken Loans Arena—and near the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Cleveland Browns Stadium; however, many of the inner-city residential neighborhoods remain troubled, and the public school system continues to experience serious problems. Economic development, retention of young professionals, and capitalizing upon its Lake Erie waterfront are current municipal priorities.
Today, Cleveland's mayor is Jane L. Campbell, the city's first female mayor. She is running against Frank Jackson in the upcoming 2005 general election for mayor.
External links
- The Encyclopedia Of Cleveland History (2002). Case Western Reserve University.
References
- The Encyclopedia Of Cleveland History by Cleveland Bicentennial Commission (Cleveland, Ohio), David D. Van Tassel (Editor), and John J. Grabowski (Editor) ISBN 0253330564