Maravi

Maravi empire malaŵí (Chichewa)
pre-1450–1860s
The Maravi Empire at its greatest extent in the 17th century. The state was composed of tributary polities, often headed by relatives of the Kalonga.
Capital	Manthimba or Mankhamba
Common languages	Chewa Yao Tumbuka
Government	Monarchy
Kalonga
• pre-15th century	Chinkhole (first)
• ?	Chidzonzi (second)
• pre1608-1640s	Muzura
• ?-1860s	Sosola (last)
History
• Adoption of kingship	pre-1450
• Defeat to Makewana's pre-Maravi	pre-1450
• Kaphiti and Lundu break away south	pre-1450
• Undi and Nyangu settle in Tete Province	post-1450
• Kalonga Muzura conquers Lundu	1622
• Yao chief Mnanula/Pemba kills Kalonga Sosola in battle	1860s
Currency	Copper, chickens
Preceded by Succeeded by Pre-Maravi Yao chiefdoms British Central Africa Protectorate Portuguese Mozambique
Today part of	Malawi Mozambique Zambia

Maravi was an empire that comprised Central and Southern Malawi, parts of Mozambique, and Eastern Zambia, from at least the early 15th century. The Chewa language, also known as Nyanja, is the main language that emerged from the empire.

The Banda clan and other smaller ones arrived in Malawi from Katanga, DR Congo in the 12th or 13th century, and are called the "pre-Maravi" by scholars. The Phiri clan adopted kingship and arrived in Malawi later, and are termed the "Maravi". The Maravi expanded via Kalonga (king) sending relatives to found new settlements however some broke away unilaterally; notable of these were Kaphiti and Lundu, and Nyangu and Undi. In the 17th century Kalonga Muzura expanded the empire, however failed to expel the Portuguese from the region. In the 18th century the system of succession broke down, leading to internal conflict and relative anarchy. This was exacerbated in the 19th century by frequent slave raiding by Yao chiefs, culminating in the death of the last Kalonga Sosola in battle in the late 1860s.

Maravi's rulers belonged to the Phiri clan and held the title Kalonga. They ruled from Manthimba, the secular/administrative capital, and were the driving force behind the state's establishment. Meanwhile, the matrilineal Banda clan, which traditionally provided healers, sages and metallurgists, took care of religious affairs from their capital Mankhamba near Ntakataka.

Name

The name Maravi is a Portuguese derivation on the word Malawi, which the Chewa had used to refer to themselves. In Nyanja/Chichewa, malaŵí means "flames". According to Samuel Josia Ntara's Mbiri ya Achewa (1944/5), "Malawi" referred to an area along Lake Malawi where a Chewa king and his people settled long ago. Chewa tradition says when they first saw Lake Malawi from the highlands, it looked like a mirage or flames. Subsequently, the land between Lake Malombe and the Linthipe River was called Malawi, and they referred to themselves as Amalawi.

History

Origins

The Chewa have two competing traditions of origin. The first holds that Chiuta (God) created the Chewa and animals at Kaphirintiwa Hill, where there are patterns of seemingly human and animal footprints in the rock. Thus it holds that the Chewa have always inhabited their present homeland. The second is in agreement with the most widely accepted models of the Bantu expansion, where most Chewa traditions hold that they migrated from Uluwa or Luba in Katanga, DR Congo to modern-day Malawi, and they are associated with Naviundu pottery in Katanga dated to the 4th century. The Banda clan and other smaller clans arrived in Malawi first, while the Phiri clan migrated later. Scholars use the name "Maravi" to refer to the Phiri, and "pre-Maravi" to refer to the Banda and others.

When the pre-Maravi reached Malawi in the 12th or 13th century, according to tradition they found a pygmy people (called Akafula, Abatwa, or Amwandionerakuti) who they fought a battle against (near Mankhamba) and drove south across the Zambezi River. They are said to have also met agriculturalists, called the Katanga, Pule, or Lenda, with archaeological research indicating Malawi was inhabited by agriculturalists from the 3rd century CE. This group likely intermarried with the Chewa and was absorbed. The pre-Maravi settled at Msinja, below the Dzalanyama range and near Kaphirintiwa Hill which, likely following the discovery of the patterns of footprints, became the society's ritual centre with a kachisi (rainmaking shrine). Msinja had good agricultural conditions, with good quality soil and lots of water. Makewana (also called Mangadzi), head of the Banda clan and priestess, held the most authority. Scholars such as Jan Vansina have characterised the pre-Maravi as a state, where Makewana, as leader, appointed Matsano (spirit wives) to hill-top shrines, of which there was a hierarchy with Makewana's Kaphirintiwa shrine considered the "mother" of shrines. While these figures specialised in ritual authority, they also held substantial secular authority, although Kamundi (of the Mbewe clan) likely nominally held secular leadership. Engagement with the Indian Ocean trade likely began around the 13th century through the Lake Malawi-Lake Tanganyika corridor, with the main export being ivory.

After leaving Katanga in DR Congo, tradition has the Maravi stop at various places in the search for a place to settle. One of these was Choma, either a river in Zambia flowing into Lake Mweru which the first Kalonga (king) and his people was said to have crossed, a mountain in Mzimba District (thought to have a burial site of a Kalonga), or a place in southern Zambia. Clan names are said to have been created there. Prior to this settlement, the Maravi are said to have had the same female ritual leadership as the pre-Maravi. According to tradition, they met an Arab trader named "Hassan Bin Ali" (possibly al-Hassan ibn Suliman of Kilwa or representatives of him) who convinced them to have him as their first king. However he died before he could be initiated, interpreted as divine intervention against enthroning a foreigner. Instead Chinkhole, a local, was appointed the first Kalonga and religiosity shifted to the veneration of rulers. Chinkhole died and was succeeded by Chidzonzi, now the most revered of the Kalongas. Possibly due to lack of land for their growing population, the Maravi left Choma. Another stop was Chewa Hill, where they are said to have derived their endonym from, however scholars have alternative theories on the word's origin.

The Maravi finally reached Msinja, where they found the pre-Maravi led by Makewana. Kalonga aimed to destroy the pre-Maravi's political organisation by attacking the shrine on Kaphirintiwa Hill, however the shrine was difficult to reach and fiercely defended. In his defeat, Kalonga accepted Makewana's ritual authority (taking her secular authority in the process), and the Banda clan would provide Kalonga's principal wife (Mwali). The pre-Maravi's socio-political organisation was incorporated into the Maravi's state. Possibly due to concerns about causing friction with the pre-Maravi, the Chewa continued their migration, stopping at Mawere a Nyangu for a long time (which featured two hills likened to Nyangu's breasts, who was Kalonga's mother or sister and head of the Phiri clan). A dispute arose around the practise of dark magic, and mwavi (a poisonous drink) was distributed in order to kill the culprit, however many innocent people died. This caused a dispute between Changamire (Kalonga's brother) and Kaphiti, as Kaphiti and Lundu (both relatives of Kalonga) were thought to be the culprits. Possibly after a succession dispute, Kaphiti and Lundu broke away to the south to establish their own kingdoms. Kalonga sent Changamire south (as he intended to migrate north) to expand the state and found new settlements. After their population outgrew the land at Mawere a Nyangu, they finally moved onto Msangu wa Machete, which was near the Nadzipulu River (in Dedza District) and Lake Malawi. According to tradition, the Banda built their village called "Mankhamba" and the Phiri built theirs called "Malawi". Archaeological research indicates Mankhamba was settled (likely by the pre-Maravi) between the 12th and 14th centuries, and the Maravi were very likely present there circa 1450. Scholars disagree about whether Mankhamba or Manthimba was Kalonga's capital. Subsequently it became their new homeland.

Expansion and apogee

The empire was expanded via Kalonga sending his sons and family members to found new tributary polities and giving them emblems of office (such as an iron stool), as he had done at Mawere a Nyangu with Changamire. One of these to leave was Undi (Kalonga's uncle), reportedly due to his distaste of Mankhamba and following a succession dispute, and a dispute with Kalonga around dinner customs (a clash between political seniority and familial seniority). In the succession dispute Undi had the support of most of the royal family but not the counsellors (new Kalongas had to be of the Phiri clan and descendants of Nyangu, and approved by counsellors). When Undi left most of the royal family followed him, including Nyangu (traditionally responsible for bearing future Kalongas). He stopped at Makewana's Msinja before settling at Mano in Mozambique's Tete Province. Nyangu's accompaniment meant Undi could nominate succession candidates, and Mwali's role became more significant, giving Kalonga's counsellors (who were all Banda, the clan Mwali also had to come from) more power. At Mano Undi expanded his influence towards Msinja, reportedly to such levels he also could appoint Makewana's successors, and his authority reached as far as the Luangwa River in the 17th century. He is said to have conquered the eastern Nsenga, however their oral traditions have no memory of this and it is more plausible they were vassals. Chulu was either sent north by Kalonga or left Undi, and settled in the southern Tumbuka lands of Chimaliro in Kasungu District. By the end of the 17th century, Chulu had been replaced by Mwase, traditionally an elephant hunter who had rid the community of dangerous animals and ended local conflicts.

A son of Kalonga, Mkadzula of the Mwale clan (also called Kanyenda), left Mankhamba to settle in the Tonga lands in Salima District. Traditions on Mkanda Mbewe, possibly another son of Kalonga, differ, likely influenced by interactions with invaders in the 19th century. The first tradition says Mkanda was more important than Undi, saying that Undi walked while Mkanda was carried in a hammock, however other traditions say this was because of an injury. Some traditions say Mkanda was sent to Bunda, and later Kasungu. Accordingly he left after a dispute with Mwase and settled in Mchinji after defeating Akafula warriors, only making contact with Undi after. However traditions from Undi's area say Mkanda was sent to Mchinji by Undi, only becoming independent later. Kalonga's power and wealth grew as relatives sent him ivory as tribute, which was processed at Mankhamba.

Kaphiti and Lundu had settled southwest either near Utale or the Wankurumadzi River in Mwanza-Neno districts, coming to rule over the Chipeta (regional proto-Chewa) there. Kaphiti grew powerful, extending over the Lower Shire Valley, the Shire Highlands, Mulanje, and areas in modern-day Mozambique. Later, Lundu left to establish his own kingdom further south at Mbewe near Chiromo. His power, supported by the rainmaking cult of Mbona, grew to eclipse that of Kaphiti (who had disappeared by the 17th century) owing to wealth accumulated from trade along the Zambezi, and he extended his influence over the Lower Zambezi Valley. He expanded eastwards into Makua and Lolo lands, with some Makua and Lolo headmen made tributaries alongside Maravi chiefs. Lundu allied with the Zimba, who notoriously defeated the Portuguese in 1592 and 1593, and sacked Kilwa and Mombasa, however were eventually defeated by Malindi and the Segeju.

The Maravi engaged in trade both locally and in the wider Indian Ocean trade. Muzura was a Kalonga revered in Portuguese records. Undi had the choice of the Kalonga's successors, and Muzura was originally part of the royalty at Mano. He led workers on a Portuguese settler's plantation and was a renowned hunter. He came to power at a time when Gatsi Rusere, ruler of Mutapa from 1589-1623, claimed to have a military alliance with Kalonga, and aided the Portuguese in defeating Gatsi Rusere's rivals in 1608. Muzura had a second capital in Mwanza-Neno closer to the Zambezi, and in 1616 provided hospitality to traveller Gaspar Bocarro who wrote the first historical account of Maravi. In 1622, Muzura defeated Lundu with the help of the Portuguese, becoming the undisputed ruler of the region. Under Muzura trade flourished and the Maravi grew very wealthy. In 1629 Muzura allied Mwenemutapa Kapararidze, Gatsi Rusere's successor, aiming to expel the Portuguese from Zambezia. However Muzura's attack on Quelimane was unsuccessful. Portuguese records in 1635 described Muzura as cunning and very powerful, and he passed away some time in the 1640s.

Decline

The Maravi empire began to decline and fragment in the 18th century as the system for succession broke down. The power of the Banda clan had grown since Undi and Nyangu left Mankhamba, as a candidate for Kalonga required the approval of counsellors belonging to the Banda clan, leaving the Kalonga (belonging to the Phiri clan) relatively isolated. During the 18th century Undi lost the role of appointing Kalongas as the counsellors assumed that responsibility. Undi's authority was weakened by the Portuguese working gold deposits north of the Zambezi who dealt with his lesser chiefs directly, and by the turn of the 19th century many Chewa, Pimbe, and Nsenga had broken free. Back at Mankhamba, despite the convenience of appointing Kalongas locally, various powerful counsellors manipulated and abused the system. Rulers from other clans came to power, such as Mchepera of the Mwale clan and Kampini of the Mbewe clan. This was compounded by some territorial chiefs' dissatisfaction at not being permitted to sell ivory directly to foreign merchants. As territorial chiefs broke away and the Kalonga lost control over trade, the Yao people in northern Mozambique opened new trade routes. Undi is said to have led a force to install his own royal line as Kalonga and depose Mkhwima, and while he was not successful, he continued to press his dynasty's claims. Rather than following succession conventions, new Kalongas came to power via armed conflict, and there were many short reigns throughout this time. A deposed Kalonga, Khute, fled to one of the chiefdom, splitting the state for some time. Makewana is also said to have led revolts against the Kalonga after he raped one of her matsano, supported by Undi. Sometime in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Mankhamba was abandoned.

From the early 19th century, the Yao led slave raids into the southern region around Lake Malawi, often using guns, which devastated Chewa communities. Slaves were sold to Arab or Swahili traders, and some Chewa chiefs also engaged in the trade due to how profitable it was. Foreign traders dealt directly with lesser chiefs, empowering them and disrupting the hierarchical system of authority. The 1820s saw a great famine. Around 1837, the Maseko Ngoni arrived in the region from Mozambique having fled the Mfecane, and also engaged in raiding the Chewa, who became a series of independent villages, militarily disorganised and often hostile to one another. During the 19th century, the peripheral kingdoms/chiefdoms of Mkanda, Mwase, and Kanyenda were the most powerful out of the Maravi.

The last Kalonga was Sosola, who was of the Phiri clan and a descendant of Nyangu. With the help of four chiefs, three of which were Yao and one called Mnanula, he defeated Kalonga Kampini (who was of the Mbewe clan) and usurped the title. Sosola lacked the military capacity to prevent the Yao's raids, so instead made diplomatic efforts, however the Ngoni refused to help him. He turned to a Yao group led by Msamala and his son Mponda, who accepted his request and defeated the group led by Mnanula, however they too began slave raiding, forcing Sosola to leave and settle near Mankhamba and Mnanula's settlement. Towards the end of the 1860s a war broke out between Sosola and Mnanula, resulting in Mnanula shooting and killing Sosola himself, afterwards changing his name to Pemba. This saw the end of the position of Kalonga. Two decades later, the region was colonised by the British, and the slave trade had ended by the turn of the 20th century.

Government

The state was headed by Kalonga (king) of the Phiri clan. Authority existed in a hierarchy from village headman to group village headman, sub-chief, chief, senior chief, and paramount chief. Other perpetual titles included Nyangu (reserved for either the Kalonga's mother or sister) and Mwali (Kalonga's main wife, chosen from the Banda clan and said to have been Makewana's daughter). As a matrilocal society, Nyangu was head of the Phiri clan, and held the highest rank in the system, serving to check Kalonga's power. Makewana or Mangadzi was a female priestess and rainmaker, and also head of the Banda clan. Successors to the Kalonga had to be descendants of Nyangu and of the Phiri clan, and had to be approved by counsellors at Mankhamba who belonged to the Banda clan. This system broke down in the 18th century, contributing significantly to the decline of the state. Some other clans included the Mwale, Linde, Kwenda, Mbewe, and Mphadwe clans.

The state had regional chiefs called Mwini Dziko ("owner of the land") or mambo who Kalonga would give a flywhisk, a sword or knife, and an iron stool. The Mwini Dziko delegated control to various sub-chiefs, and tribute was paid to Kalonga, often in the form of ivory. The army was led by Khombe, a member of the Mwale clan.

Economy

The Maravi practised both pastoral and arable farming. They likely grew sorghum, millet, beans, groundnuts, dagga, and later cassava, sweet potatoes, tobacco, and pumpkins which were introduced via trade with the Portuguese. Cotton became popular to grow, with varieties including the indigenous thonje kaja and the foreign thonje manga. Animals raised for food included cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, chickens and doves. Chickens were often used as a medium of exchange prior to the introduction of money. Hunting was done in large groups, antelope were a common target. Fishing was also popular.

Mankhamba specialised in metallurgy, and the Maravi were well-known to other groups and the Portuguese for their high quality iron tools. Other than use for agriculture, iron tools were also used in manufacturing various objects such as mortars, pestles, mats, baskets, drums, and canoes. Copper working was less common due to the lack of accessible copper deposits in the area. They engaged in other industries such as the production of cloth, wicker objects and pottery, and house construction. Cloth was made from bwazi (called dewere) or the bark of mombo trees (barkcloth), and cotton cloth which gradually replaced the others. There were two types of wicker ware, nkeka made from mgwalangwa, and mphasa made from bango. Pottery was commonly produced, and ceramic pots by women only. Ivory was also processed at Mankhamba.

The Maravi traded locally as well as engaging in the Indian Ocean trade, from which glass beads deriving from Europe and Asia were a popular import (Indian ones were much more popular and well-regarded than European ones). Copper objects were imported from modern-day Zambia and DR Congo, and copper was used as a medium of exchange. Due to the Maravi originating from the copper-rich area of Katanga, they were likely intimately familiar with copper workings. Chinese porcelain dating to the 16th century has been uncovered at Mankhamba. The Maravi exported iron tools, especially to the Portuguese, and cloth called machila, which was cheaper and often preferred to Indian cloth due to its durability. Salt from Lake Malawi was also traded to the interior. There were plenty of elephants in the area, and ivory was a popular trade good. Firearms imported in the 19th century saw the rapid growth in elephant hunting.

Society and culture

The Phiri clan held secular authority. The Banda clan were in charge of religious matters and held ritual authority, and were relied upon for the society's prosperity. Their head, priestess Makewana, was supported by Matsano (spirit wives) and members of the Mbewe clan. The Mlira ceremony involved the heads of different ruling families to venerate the spirit of the Kalonga who led the Maravi's migration, which took the physical form of a snake. Kamundi was a senior member of the Mbewe clan who fulfilled the role of Thunga (a snake). The shrine at Kaphirintiwa Hill had a sacred pool, which, during rainmaking rituals, Makewana, according to tradition, would disappear into it for days on end when calling for rain. It also has a sacred drum (mbiriwiri) said to have been left by the Akafula when they were displaced. Only Tsang'oma of the Mwale clan was (and is) permitted to beat the drum, and drum playing was forbidden in Msinja. Hill-top shrines were largely inaccessible and could have been a place of refuge from invaders. Mankhamba also had its own shrine (still in use) and sacred water pool, the latter of which was located 8 km (5 miles) away, to be used when group village headman deemed it necessary. Two notable succession rites were Chinamwali which prepared women for motherhood, and Nyau which prepared men for hardships of adult life.

Regarding wicker ware, mphasa was used to cover the dead, while nkeka was used by women as seats for socialising. The two types of baskets, dengu/mtanga and lichero, were primarily used by women. The deepest basket, mseche, was used to store locally-made beer for celebrations and other village events. It was very common to smoke dagga and later tobacco, and smoking pipes were often decorated. Cattle were viewed as symbols of wealth and status. Women prepared plant foods while men prepared meats. Dogs were raised for hunting and companionship. Hunters provided sacrifices and carried charms and medicines for good luck and safety. Some jewellery uncovered by archaeological research included glass beads, copper rings, copper necklaces, and ivory bangles.

List of rulers

The following is a list of rulers according to Kings M. Phiri, a renowned Malawian historian. After the early 18th century there is great variation in traditions.

• Chinkhole Mazizi (1480-1505)
• Chidzonzi (1505-1530)
• Chinsangu (1530-1555)
• Mphunga (1555-1580)
• Mkung'untha (1580-1605)
• Mchepera (1605-1630), Portuguese records have Muzura as the Kalonga at this time, however Chewa traditions have no record of that name
• Kamtukule (1630-1655)
• Mkhwima (1655-1680)
• Khute (1680-1705)
• Mziitsa (1705-1730), a usurper according to some traditions
• ...

External links

• Maravi culture
• History of Maravi