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Fasaha

Gyara hanyoyin mahaɗar
Daga Wikipedia, Insakulofidiya ta kyauta.
(an turo daga Technology)
technology
academic discipline (en) Fassara da industry (en) Fassara
Bayanai
Ƙaramin ɓangare na Kimiyya da Fasaha
Bangare na science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (en) Fassara da technical system (en) Fassara
Yana haddasa convenience (en) Fassara
Is the study of (en) Fassara technique (en) Fassara
Karatun ta technology assessment (en) Fassara, science and technology studies (en) Fassara da sociotechnology (en) Fassara
Hashtag (mul) Fassara Technology
Has contributing factor (en) Fassara applied science (en) Fassara
Has characteristic (en) Fassara type of technology (en) Fassara, technological maturity (en) Fassara da technological singularity (en) Fassara
Tarihin maudu'i history of technology (en) Fassara da history of technology in Ukraine (en) Fassara
Manifestation of (en) Fassara applied science (en) Fassara
Gudanarwan technologist (en) Fassara
Uses (en) Fassara technique (en) Fassara

Fasaha Wannan kalma tana nufin kirkirar wani abu da aka samo daga kimiyya zuwa ga wani abu da za'a iya amfani da shi ta hanyoyi da dama, kamar su mota, wayar tarho, jirgi da dai sauransu.[1][2][3] Wannan hanya tana taimakon Injiniyoyi (masu 'kere-'kere) wajen tabbatarda sun maida rayuwa ta zama cikin sauki ga Dan Adam.[4][5][6]

Ci gaban fasaha ya haifar da gagarumin canje-canje a cikin al'umma. Fasaha ta farko da aka sani ita ce kayan aikin dutse, wanda aka yi amfani da shi a lokacin prehistory, sannan kuma sarrafa wuta - wanda hakan ya ba da gudummawa ga haɓakar kwakwalwar ɗan adam da haɓaka harshe a lokacin Ice Age, bisa ga hasashen dafa abinci. Ƙirƙirar dabaran a zamanin Bronze Age ya ba da damar tafiye-tafiye da yawa da ƙirƙirar injuna masu rikitarwa. Ƙirƙirar fasaha na baya-bayan nan, da suka haɗa da na'urar bugawa, tarho, da Intanet, sun rage shinge ga sadarwa tare da shigar da tattalin arzikin ilimi.[7][8][9]

Yayin da fasaha ke ba da gudummawa ga ci gaban tattalin arziki da haɓaka wadatar ɗan adam, kuma tana iya yin mummunan tasiri kamar gurɓata yanayi da raguwar albarkatu, kuma yana iya haifar da lahani ga zamantakewa kamar rashin aikin fasaha na fasaha da ke haifar da sarrafa kansa. Sakamakon haka, muhawara ta falsafa da siyasa game da rawar da fasaha da amfani da fasaha, da ka'idojin fasaha, da kuma hanyoyin da za a bi don rage lalacewarta suna ci gaba da gudana.[10][11]

Ilimin halin dan Adam

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Fasaha kalma ce da ta samo asali tun farkon karni na 17 wanda ke nufin 'maganin tsarin' (daga Girkanci Τεχνολογία, daga Girkanci: τέχνη, romanized: tékhnē, lit. 'craft, art' da -λογί), α (study, ilmin).[12][13] An riga an riga an yi amfani da shi da kalmar Helenanci na Tsohuwar τέχνη (tékhnē), ana amfani da ita don nufin 'sanin yadda ake yin abubuwa', wanda ya ƙunshi ayyuka kamar gine-gine.[14]

Tun daga karni na 19, Turawa na Nahiyar suka fara amfani da kalmomin Technik (Jamus) ko fasaha (Faransanci) don nufin 'hanyar yin aiki', wanda ya haɗa da duk fasahar fasaha, kamar rawa, kewayawa, ko bugu, ko suna buƙatar kayan aiki ko kayan aiki.[15] A lokacin, Technologie (Jamus da Faransanci) suna magana ko dai ga ilimin ilimi da ke nazarin "hanyoyin fasaha da fasaha", ko kuma ga tsarin siyasa "da nufin yin doka a kan ayyukan fasaha da fasaha."[16] Kalmar a baya ba a saba da ita ba a cikin Ingilishi kuma galibi ana magana da ita ga horon ilimi, kamar yadda yake a Cibiyar Fasaha ta Massachusetts.[17]

A cikin karni na 20, sakamakon ci gaban kimiyya da juyin juya halin masana'antu na biyu, fasahar ta daina daukar ta a matsayin wani nau'in horo na ilimi kuma ta dauki ma'ana: tsarin amfani da ilimi zuwa karshen aiki.[18]

Tarihi

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Tarihin-tarihi

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refer to caption
Mutum yana rike da gatari

Hominids ne suka fara haɓaka kayan aikin ta hanyar dubawa da gwaji da kuskure.[19] A kusa da 2 Mya (shekaru miliyan da suka wuce), sun koyi yin kayan aikin dutse na farko ta hanyar hange flakes daga dutsen dutse, suna kafa gatari mai kaifi.[20] An gyara wannan aikin 75 kya (shekaru dubu da suka wuce) zuwa matsi, yana ba da damar aiki mafi kyau.[21]

Charles Darwin ya bayyana gano wuta a matsayin "watakila mafi girma da mutum ya taba yi".[22] Shaidar archaeological, abinci, da zamantakewa suna nuna "ci gaba da amfani da wuta [mutane]" aƙalla 1.5 Mya.[23] Wuta, da itace da gawayi ke hura wuta, ta baiwa ɗan adam na farko damar dafa abincinsu don ƙara narkewa, inganta darajar sinadarai da faɗaɗa yawan abincin da za a iya ci.[24] Hasashen dafa abinci yana ba da shawarar cewa ikon dafa abinci yana haɓaka haɓakar girman kwakwalwar hominid, kodayake wasu masu bincike suna ganin shaidar ba ta cika ba.[25] An yi kwanan wata shaidar archaeological na murhu zuwa kya 790; masu bincike sun yi imanin cewa wannan yana yiwuwa ya ƙarfafa zamantakewar ɗan adam kuma yana iya taimakawa wajen bayyanar harshe.[26][27]

Sauran ci gaban fasaha da aka samu a zamanin Paleolithic sun haɗa da tufafi da matsuguni.[28] Babu yarjejeniya kan kusan lokacin da aka fara amfani da ko wace fasaha, amma masana ilimin kimiya na kayan tarihi sun sami shaidar archaeological na tufafi 90-120 kya[29] da matsuguni 450 kya.[30] Yayin da zamanin Paleolithic ya ci gaba, gidaje sun zama nagartattun abubuwa kuma sun fi dacewa; a farkon kya 380, mutane suna gina bukkokin itace na wucin gadi.[31] Tufafi, wanda aka daidaita daga Jawo da ɓoye na dabbobin da aka farauta, sun taimaka wa ɗan adam faɗaɗa cikin yankuna masu sanyi; mutane sun fara ƙaura daga Afirka kusan kya 200, da farko suna ƙaura zuwa Eurasia.[32][33][34]

Neolithic

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Photo of Neolithic tools on display
Tsari na kayan tarihi na Neolithic, gami da mundaye, kawunan gatari, chisels, da kayan aikin goge baki

Juyin Juyin Halitta na Neolithic (ko juyin juya halin noma na farko) ya haifar da haɓaka sabbin fasahohi, da haɓakar rikice-rikicen zamantakewa.[35] Ƙirƙirar gatari dutsen da aka goge wani babban ci gaba ne wanda ya ba da damar share gandun daji da kuma noma.[36] Wannan amfani da gatura mai gogewa ya ƙaru sosai a cikin Neolithic amma an fara amfani da shi a cikin Mesolithic da ya gabata a wasu yankuna kamar Ireland.[37] Noma ya ciyar da yawan jama'a, kuma sauye-sauye zuwa zaman lafiya ya ba da damar haɓaka yawan yara a lokaci guda, saboda jarirai ba sa buƙatar makiyaya su zagaya da su. Bugu da ƙari, yara za su iya ba da gudummawar aiki don kiwon amfanin gona cikin sauri fiye da yadda za su iya shiga ayyukan mafarauta.[38][39]

Ƙirƙirar rubuce-rubuce ta haifar da yaduwar ilimin al'adu kuma ya zama tushen tarihi, dakunan karatu, makarantu, da binciken kimiyya.[40]

Tsohuwar tarihi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Photo of an early wooden wheel
The wheel was invented c. 4,000 BCE.
Photo of Wooden Wheel with axle (oldest wooden wheel yet discovered)
Ljubljana Marshes Wheel with axle (oldest wooden wheel yet discovered as of 2024)

Bayan yin amfani da wuta, mutane sun gano wasu nau'ikan makamashi. Sanin farko na amfani da wutar lantarki shine jirgin ruwa mai tafiya; tarihin farko na jirgin ruwa da ke karkashin ruwa shi ne na jirgin ruwan Nilu da ya yi kusan shekara 7,000 KZ.[41] Tun kafin tarihi, mai yiyuwa ne Masarawa sun yi amfani da ƙarfin ambaliyar kogin Nilu na shekara-shekara don shayar da ƙasarsu, a hankali suna koyon yadda za su daidaita yawancin ta ta hanyoyin ban ruwa da aka gina da gangan da kuma tasoshin "kama".[42] Tsoffin Sumeriyawa a Mesofotamiya sun yi amfani da tsarin magudanar ruwa da lefi don karkatar da ruwa daga kogin Tigris da Furat don ban ruwa.[43]

Masu binciken archaeologists sun ƙiyasta cewa an ƙirƙira motar ne da kanta kuma a lokaci guda a Mesopotamiya (a Iraki ta yau), Arewacin Caucasus (al'adun Maykop), da tsakiyar Turai.[44] Ƙididdigar lokaci ya kasance daga 5,500 zuwa 3,000 KZ tare da yawancin masana sun sanya shi kusa da 4,000 KZ.[45] Tsofaffin kayan tarihi tare da zane-zane da ke nuna katuna masu ƙafafu sun kasance tun daga kusan 3,500 KZ.[46] Kwanan nan, mafi dadewa da aka sani da dabaran katako a duniya kamar na 2024 an samo shi a cikin Ljubljana Marsh na Slovenia; Masanan Austriya sun tabbatar da cewa motar tana tsakanin shekaru 5,100 zuwa 5,350.[47]

Ƙirƙirar dabarar ta kawo sauyi ga kasuwanci da yaƙi. Ba a dauki lokaci mai tsawo ana gano cewa ana iya amfani da keken keke don ɗaukar kaya masu nauyi ba. Sumariyawa na dā sun yi amfani da dabaran tukwane kuma wataƙila sun ƙirƙira shi.[48] Wata dabarar tukwane da aka samu a cikin birnin-Ur ta kasance a kusan shekara ta 3,429 K.Z., [49] kuma har ma da tsofaffin gutsutsutsun tukwane da aka jefa a cikin wannan yanki. Motocin tukwane masu sauri (rotary) sun ba da damar samar da tukwane da wuri, amma yin amfani da dabaran a matsayin mai canza makamashi (ta hanyar ƙafafun ruwa, injin niƙa, har ma da tukwane) ya kawo sauyi ga amfani da tushen wutar lantarki da ba na ɗan adam ba. Katunan farko masu kafa biyu an samo su ne daga travois kuma an fara amfani da su a Mesofotamiya da Iran a kusan 3,000 KZ.[50]

Sanannun titunan da aka gina su ne titin da aka yi da dutse na birnin-jihar Ur, tun daga c. 4,000 KZ, da hanyoyin katako da ke bi ta cikin gulmar Glastonbury, Ingila, suna kusan lokaci guda. Hanya ta farko mai nisa, wadda aka fara amfani da ita a wajen shekara ta 3,500 KZ, ta yi tafiyar kilomita 2,400 daga Tekun Fasha zuwa Tekun Bahar Rum, amma ba a yi shimfida ba kuma ba a kula da shi ba. A kusan 2,000 KZ, Minoans a tsibirin Girka na Crete sun gina hanya mai nisan kilomita 50 daga fadar Gortyn da ke kudancin tsibirin, ta cikin tsaunuka, zuwa fadar Knossos a gefen arewacin tsibirin. Ba kamar hanyar da ta gabata ba, titin Minoan ya kasance cikakke.[51]

refer to caption
Hotunan Pont du Gard a Faransa, ɗaya daga cikin shahararrun magudanan ruwa na Romawa

Gidajen Minoan na dā suna da ruwan sha.[52] An gano wani wankan wanka da yayi kama da na zamani a fadar Knossos.[53] Wasu gidaje masu zaman kansu na Minoan kuma suna da bandakuna, waɗanda za a iya zubar da su ta hanyar zubar da ruwa a cikin magudanar. Romawa na d ¯ a suna da ɗakunan banɗaki da yawa na jama'a, waɗanda suka fantsama cikin tsarin najasa mai yawa. Babban magudanar ruwa a Roma shine Cloaca Maxima; an fara gininsa a ƙarni na shida KZ kuma har yanzu ana amfani da shi a yau.[51]

Dadaddiyar Romawa kuma suna da tsarin magudanan ruwa mai sarkakiya, da ake amfani da su wajen jigilar ruwa zuwa nesa mai nisa.[53] An gina magudanar ruwa ta Roma ta farko a shekara ta 312 KZ. An gina tsohuwar magudanar ruwa ta Roma ta goma sha ɗaya kuma ta ƙarshe a shekara ta 226 CE. A hade, magudanan ruwa na Romawa sun kai kilomita 450, amma kasa da kilomita 70 na wannan yana sama da kasa kuma yana goyan bayansa.[53]

Kafin zamani

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Sabbin abubuwa sun ci gaba har zuwa tsakiyar zamanai tare da gabatar da samar da siliki (a Asiya da Turai daga baya), kwalawar doki, da takalman dawakai. An haɗa injuna masu sauƙi (kamar lever, screw, da puley) zuwa kayan aikin da suka fi rikitarwa, kamar keken keke, injin niƙa, da agogo.[54] Tsarin jami'o'i ya haɓaka da yada ra'ayoyin kimiyya da ayyuka, gami da Oxford da Cambridge.[55]

Zamanin Renaissance ya samar da sabbin abubuwa da yawa, ciki har da gabatar da na'urar bugu mai motsi zuwa Turai, wanda ya sauƙaƙe sadarwar ilimi. Kimiyya ta ƙara yin tasiri ga fasaha, inda ta fara zagayowar ci gaban juna.[56]

Na zamani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Motar, anan asalin Benz Patent-Motorwagen, ta kawo sauyi kan harkokin sufuri na mutum.

Tun daga Burtaniya a karni na 18, gano wutar tururi ya haifar da juyin juya halin masana'antu, wanda ya ga fa'idodin fasaha da yawa, musamman a fannin noma, masana'antu, hakar ma'adinai, karafa, da sufuri, da kuma yadda ake amfani da tsarin masana'antu sosai.[57] Wannan ya biyo bayan karni guda bayan juyin juya halin masana'antu na biyu wanda ya haifar da saurin gano kimiyya, daidaitawa, da samarwa da yawa. An kirkiro sabbin fasahohi, da suka hada da na'urorin tsabtace ruwa, wutar lantarki, fitulun fitulu, injinan lantarki, titin jirgin kasa, motoci, da jiragen sama. Wadannan ci gaban fasaha sun haifar da gagarumin ci gaba a fannin likitanci, sunadarai, kimiyyar lissafi, da injiniyanci.[58] Sun kasance tare da sauye-sauyen zamantakewa, tare da gabatar da manyan gine-gine tare da haɓaka birane cikin sauri.[59] Sadarwa ta inganta tare da ƙirƙirar telegraph, tarho, rediyo, da talabijin.[60]

Karni na 20 ya kawo sabbin abubuwa da yawa. A kimiyyar lissafi, gano fission na nukiliya a cikin Atomic Age ya haifar da makaman nukiliya da makaman nukiliya. An ƙirƙira kwamfutocin Analog kuma sun tabbatar da rinjaye wajen sarrafa hadaddun bayanai. Yayin da ƙirƙirar bututun injin ɗin ya ba da izinin yin lissafin dijital tare da kwamfutoci kamar ENIAC, girman girmansu ya hana yin amfani da shi sosai har sai sabbin abubuwa a cikin kimiyar lissafi sun ba da izinin ƙirƙirar transistor a 1947, wanda ya haɗa kwamfutoci sosai kuma ya jagoranci canjin dijital. Fasahar bayanai, musamman fiber na gani da na'urori masu amo, sun ba da izinin sadarwa mai sauƙi da sauri, wanda ya haifar da Zamanin Bayanai da Haihuwar Intanet.[61]

Ana buƙatar hadaddun masana'antu da fasahohin gini da ƙungiyoyi don ƙirƙira da kiyaye ƙarin fasahohin zamani, kuma masana'antu gabaɗaya sun taso don haɓaka ƙarni masu zuwa na kayan aikin da suka fi rikitarwa. Fasahar zamani tana ƙara dogaro da horo da ilimi - masu zanen su, magina, masu kula da su, da masu amfani da su galibi suna buƙatar ingantaccen horo na musamman da takamaiman. Bugu da ƙari, waɗannan fasahohin sun zama masu sarƙaƙƙiya har dukan fannoni sun haɓaka don tallafa musu, ciki har da aikin injiniya, likitanci, da kimiyyar kwamfuta; da sauran fannonin sun zama masu sarkakiya, kamar gini, sufuri, da gine-gine.[62]

Tasiri

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Canjin fasaha shi ne babban dalilin ci gaban tattalin arziki na dogon lokaci.[63][64] A cikin tarihin dan Adam, samar da makamashi shine babban abin da ke hana ci gaban tattalin arziki, kuma sabbin fasahohin na baiwa dan Adam damar kara yawan kuzarin da ake samu. Wuta ta farko ta zo, wanda ya sanya abincin da ake ci ya zama nau'in abinci iri-iri, kuma ya sa ya rage buƙatar jiki don narkewa. Wuta kuma tana ba da damar narkewa, da yin amfani da daskararru, da tagulla, da ƙarfe, da ake amfani da su don farauta ko sana'a. Daga nan sai juyin juya halin noma ya zo: mutane ba sa bukatar farauta ko taro don su rayu, suka fara zama a garuruwa da birane, suna kafa al'ummomi masu sarkakiya, masu sojoji da tsarin addini.[65]

Shekarun baya-bayan nan dai sun haifar da daukakar al'adu a kafafen sada zumunta, tare da yin illa ga dimokuradiyya, da tattalin arziki da zamantakewa. Tun da farko, ana kallon intanet a matsayin "fasaha na 'yantar da jama'a" wanda zai kawo dimokuradiyyar ilimi, inganta damar samun ilimi, da inganta dimokuradiyya. Bincike na zamani ya juya don bincikar abubuwan da ke cikin intanet, ciki har da rashin fahimta, rashin fahimta, maganganun ƙiyayya, da farfaganda.[66]

Tun daga shekarun 1970, ana sukar tasirin fasaha a kan muhalli, wanda ya haifar da karuwar saka hannun jari a cikin hasken rana, iska, da sauran nau'ikan makamashi mai tsafta.

Zamantakewa

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Ayyuka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tun da aka kirkiri dabaran, fasahohin na taimakawa wajen habaka tattalin arzikin dan Adam. Kayan aiki da ya gabata yana da madaidaicin aiki da madaidaitan aiki; injina sun maye gurbin mutane a wasu ayyuka masu rahusa (misali a aikin gona), amma an biya wannan diyya ta hanyar ƙirƙirar sabbin ayyuka masu biyan kuɗi.[67] Bincike ya gano cewa kwamfutoci ba su haifar da rashin aikin yi na fasaha ba.[68] Saboda hankali na wucin gadi ya fi kwamfutoci iya nisa, kuma har yanzu yana kan ƙuruciyarsa, ba a san ko zai bi irin wannan yanayin ba; An yi ta muhawara mai tsawo a kan wannan tambaya a tsakanin masana tattalin arziki da masu tsara manufofi. Wani bincike na 2017 ya gano babu wata cikakkiyar yarjejeniya tsakanin masana tattalin arziki kan ko AI zai kara yawan rashin aikin yi na dogon lokaci.[69] Dangane da "Rahoton Ayyuka na Makomar 2020" na Ƙungiyar Tattalin Arziki ta Duniya, AI ana hasashen zai maye gurbin ayyuka miliyan 85 a duk duniya, kuma zai haifar da sabbin ayyuka miliyan 97 nan da 2025.[70][71] Daga 1990 zuwa 2007, wani bincike a Amurka na masanin tattalin arziki na MIT Daron Acemoglu ya nuna cewa ƙari na mutum-mutumi guda ɗaya ga kowane ma'aikata 1,000 ya rage yawan aiki zuwa yawan jama'a da kashi 0.2%, ko kusan ma'aikata 3.3, kuma an rage albashi da kashi 0.42%.[72][73] Damuwa game da fasahar maye gurbin aikin ɗan adam duk da haka yana daɗe. Kamar yadda shugaban Amurka Lyndon Johnson ya ce a cikin 1964, "Fasaha na samar da sabbin damammaki da sabbin wajibai a gare mu, dama don samun yawan aiki da ci gaba; wajibi ne a tabbatar da cewa babu ma'aikaci, babu iyali da za su biya farashi na rashin adalci don ci gaba." a kan sanya hannu kan dokar Hukumar kan Fasaha, Automation, da Ci gaban Tattalin Arziki.[74][75][76][77][78]

Tsaro

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Tare da karuwar dogaro da fasaha, an sami tsaro da damuwa na sirri tare da ita. Biliyoyin mutane suna amfani da hanyoyin biyan kuɗi daban-daban na kan layi, kamar WeChat Pay, PayPal, Alipay, da ƙari mai yawa don taimakawa canja wurin kuɗi. Ko da yake an sanya matakan tsaro, wasu masu laifi suna iya ƙetare su.[79] A watan Maris na 2022, Koriya ta Arewa ta yi amfani da Blender.io, wani mahaɗa wanda ya taimaka musu wajen ɓoye musayar cryptocurrency ɗin su, don wawatar da sama da dala miliyan 20.5 na cryptocurrency, daga Axie Infinity, tare da sace sama da dala miliyan 600 na cryptocurrency daga mai wasan. Saboda haka, Ma'aikatar Baitulmali ta Amurka ta sanya takunkumi ga Blender.io, wanda ya zama karo na farko da ta dauki mataki kan na'urar hadawa, don kokarin murkushe masu satar bayanan Koriya ta Arewa.[79][80] An yi muhawara akan sirrin cryptocurrency. Ko da yake yawancin abokan ciniki suna son sirrin cryptocurrency, da yawa kuma suna jayayya cewa yana buƙatar ƙarin nuna gaskiya da kwanciyar hankali.[78]

Manazarta

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  1. ↑ Skolnikoff, Eugene B. (1993). "The Setting". The Elusive Transformation: Science, Technology, and the Evolution of International Politics. Princeton University Press. p. 13. ISBN 0-691-08631-1. JSTOR j.ctt7rpm1. I find the most useful conceptual definition for this study to be that given by Harvey Brooks, who has defined technology ...as 'knowledge of how to fulfill certain human purposes in a specifiable and reproducible way.'
  2. ↑ Technology. (2025, June 11). In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/technology/technology
  3. ↑ https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/technology
  4. ↑ Salomon 1984, pp. 117–118: "The first pole, that of the naturalisation of a new discipline within the university curriculum, was presented by Christian Wolff in 1728, in Chapter III of the "Preliminary discourse" to his Philosophia rationalisis sive Logica: 'Technology is the science of skills and works of skill, or, if one prefers, the science of things made by man's labour, chiefly through the use of his hands.'"
  5. ↑ Mitcham, Carl (1994). Thinking Through Technology: The Path Between Engineering and Philosophy. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-53196-1.
  6. ↑ UNESCO. (2022). Engineering for sustainable development: Delivering on the sustainable development goals. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. https://www.unesco.org/en/engineering-sustainable-development
  7. ↑ https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/behavior/stone-tools
  8. ↑ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/worldhistory/chapter/2d-first-technologies-fire-and-tools/
  9. ↑ https://www.smith.edu/hsc/museum/ancient_inventions/potterwheel2.html
  10. ↑ https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000379365
  11. ↑ Hughes, T. P. (2004). Human-built world: How to think about technology and culture. University of Chicago Press. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/H/bo3611341.html
  12. ↑ Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1996) [1891]. Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-910205-8. OCLC 38307662.
  13. ↑ Simpson, J.; Weiner, Edmund, eds. (1989). "technology". The Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198611868.
  14. ↑ Aristotle (2009). Brown, Lesley (ed.). The Nicomachean Ethics. Oxford World's Classics. Translated by Ross, David. Oxford University Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-19-921361-0. LCCN 2009005379. OCLC 246896490.
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