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History

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Early Paleo-Inuit cultures

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In prehistoric times, Greenland was inhabited by several Paleo-Inuit cultures, identified primarily through archaeological discoveries. The first known entry of the Paleo-Inuit into Greenland occurred around 2500 BC. From 2500 BC to 800 BC, the Saqqaq culture thrived in southern and western Greenland, with most remains found near Disko Bay, including the site for which the culture is named.[1][2]

Simultaneously, the Independence I culture existed in northern Greenland from 2400 BC to 1300 BC as part of the Arctic small tool tradition,[3][4][5] with settlements such as Deltaterrasserne emerging. Around 800 BC, the Saqqaq culture disappeared, and emerged the Early Dorset culture in western Greenland and the Independence II culture in the north.[6] The Dorset culture, the first to spread across Greenland's coastal regions in both the east and west, lasted until the Thule culture's dominance by AD 1500. Dorset communities primarily relied on hunting whales and reindeer for sustenance.[7][8][9][10]

Norse settlements

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In 986, Icelanders and Norwegians, led by Erik the Red with 14 boats, established settlements along Greenland's west coast. These settlements, the Eastern, Western, and Middle Settlements, were located on fjords near the island's southwestern tip.[11][12] At the time, the Norse settlers shared Greenland with the late Dorset culture in the northern and western regions and later with the Thule culture, which migrated from the north. In 1261, Norse Greenlanders came under Norwegian rule as part of the Kingdom of Norway.[13] Norway entered a personal union with Denmark in 1380, and Greenland subsequently became part of the Kalmar Union in 1397.[14]

The Norse settlements, including Brattahlíð, flourished for several centuries before vanishing in the 15th century, possibly due to the onset of the Little Ice Age.[15] Aside from a few runic inscriptions, the only surviving contemporary records of the Norse settlements are accounts of their contact with Iceland and Norway. Medieval Norwegian sagas and historical texts document aspects of Greenland's economy, the bishops of Gardar, and the collection of tithes. Additionally, the Konungs skuggsjá (The King’s Mirror) contains a chapter describing Norse Greenland's exports, imports, and attempts at grain cultivation.

Icelandic sagas about life in Greenland were written in the 13th century or later and are not considered primary sources for early Norse Greenland,[16] though they are closer to primary sources for later Norse Greenland. Modern understanding of Norse Greenland relies primarily on archaeological evidence. Ice-core and clam-shell data suggest that between AD 800 and 1300, southern Greenland's fjord regions experienced a relatively mild climate, several degrees warmer than usual for the North Atlantic.[17] This allowed for the growth of trees and herbaceous plants, livestock farming, and barley cultivation near the 70th parallel.[18] Ice cores also reveal that Greenland has undergone significant temperature fluctuations over the past 100,000 years.[19] The Icelandic Book of Settlements also records harsh winters, with famines reportedly leading to the killing of "the old and helpless" which "were killed and thrown over cliffs".[17]

The Norse settlements in Greenland disappeared during the 14th and early 15th centuries.[20] The decline of the Western Settlement coincided with a significant drop in both summer and winter temperatures. Research on North Atlantic temperature variability during the Little Ice Age indicates that maximum summer temperatures began to decrease around the early 14th century, dropping by as much as 6 to 8 °C (11 to 14 °F) below modern summer averages.[21] Additionally, the coldest winter temperatures in 2,000 years occurred during the late 14th and early 15th centuries. The Eastern Settlement is believed to have been abandoned in the early to mid-15th century, likely as a result of these harsh climatic conditions.

Archaeological excavations at Herjolfsnes in the 1920s revealed evidence suggesting that the Norse population in Greenland may have experienced malnutrition. This could have been caused by soil erosion, linked to the Norsemen's farming practices, turf-cutting, and deforestation, as well as a decline in temperatures during the Little Ice Age, the impact of pandemic plagues,[22] or conflicts with the Skrælings (a Norse term for the Inuit, meaning "wretches"[15]). However, more recent archaeological studies question the extent of the Norse colonization's environmental damage, suggesting traces of soil improvement strategies.[23] It is now believed that the settlements, never exceeding about 2,500 people, were gradually abandoned in the 15th century, partly due to the declining value of walrus ivory,[24] once a key export—amid competition from higher-quality sources. Evidence of widespread starvation or severe hardship remains limited.[25]

Thule culture (1300-present)

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The Thule people are the ancestors of the modern Greenlandic population, with no genetic links to the Paleo-Inuit found in the current population.[26] Migrating eastward from present-day Alaska around 1000 AD, the Thule culture reached Greenland by approximately 1300. They introduced significant technological advancements to the region, including dog sleds and toggling harpoons.

There is an Inuit account of contact and conflict with the Norse settlers, republished in The Norse Atlantic Sagas by Gwyn Jones. Jones notes a possible Norse account of the same event, though its authenticity is considered more uncertain.

1500-1814

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In 1500, King Manuel I of Portugal dispatched Gaspar Corte-Real to Greenland to search for a Northwest Passage to Asia, as the Treaty of Tordesillas placed Greenland within Portugal's sphere of influence. In 1501, Gaspar returned with his brother Miguel Corte-Real, but frozen seas forced them southward to Labrador and Newfoundland. Their cartographic findings contributed to the Cantino planisphere, created in Lisbon in 1502, which accurately depicted Greenland's southern coastline.[27]

From 1605 to 1607, King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway organized expeditions to reestablish contact with Greenland's lost Norse settlements and affirm sovereignty over the island. Despite the efforts, including the participation of English explorer James Hall as pilot, these missions were largely unsuccessful due to harsh Arctic conditions and the near-inaccessibility of Greenland's east coast, where they mistakenly searched.

After the disappearance of the Norse settlements, Inuit groups controlled Greenland. However, Denmark-Norway maintained its claims, rooted in Norse history. In 1721, missionary Hans Egede led a joint mercantile and religious expedition to Greenland, seeking to reestablish contact with any remaining Norse descendants. Though no Norse communities remained, this mission marked the beginning of Denmark's colonization of the Americas. The colony, centered at Godthåb (modern Nuuk), restricted trade to Danish merchants and excluded foreign influence. Egede eventually returned to Denmark, leaving his son Paul Egede to continue the mission.

Treaty of Kiel to World War II

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When the union between the crowns of Denmark and Norway dissolved in 1814, the Treaty of Kiel assigned Norway's former colonies, including Greenland, to the Danish monarch. In July 1931, Norway occupied the then-uninhabited eastern Greenland, naming it Erik the Red's Land, on the basis that it was terra nullius. The dispute between Norway and Denmark was brought before the Permanent Court of International Justice in 1933, which ruled in favor of Denmark.[28]

Greenland's connection to Denmark was disrupted on 9 April 1940, during World War II, when Denmark was occupied by Nazi Germany. On 8 April 1941, the United States occupied Greenland to protect it from potential German invasion.[29] The U.S. occupation lasted until the end of the war in 1945. During this time, Greenland traded cryolite from the Ivittuut mine to acquire goods from the U.S. and Canada. The U.S. military used Bluie as a codename for Greenland,[30] establishing several bases, including Bluie West-1 at Narsarsuaq and Bluie West-8 at Kangerlussuaq, which remain major international airports today.

During the war, Greenland's governance changed. Governor Eske Brun assumed control under a 1925 Danish law allowing governors to act independently in extreme circumstances. Meanwhile, Governor Aksel Svane relocated to the U.S. to oversee Greenland's supply commission. The Danish Sirius Patrol guarded northeastern Greenland, using dog sleds to detect German weather stations, which were subsequently destroyed by American forces. Notably, after Nazi Germany's collapse, Albert Speer briefly considered escaping to Greenland but ultimately surrendered to the United States Armed Forces.[31]

Before 1940, Greenland was a protected and isolated society under Denmark's strict trade monopoly, allowing only limited barter trade with British whalers. Wartime experiences fostered a sense of self-reliance, as Greenland managed its own governance and external communication. However, in 1946, the highest Greenlandic council, the Landsrådene, recommended gradual reform rather than radical changes. A grand commission initiated in 1948 presented its findings in 1950 (known as G-50), advocating for the development of a modern welfare state, modeled on Denmark's example and with Danish support. In 1953, Greenland became an equal part of the Danish Kingdom, and in 1979, it was granted home rule.

References

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  1. ^ Grønnow, B. (1988). "Prehistory in permafrost: Investigations at the Saqqaq site, Qeqertasussuk, Disco Bay, West Greenland". Journal of Danish Archaeology. 7 (1): 24–39. doi:10.1080/0108464X.1988.10589995.
  2. ^ Møbjerg, T. (1999). "New adaptive strategies in the Saqqaq culture of Greenland, c. 1600–1400 BC". World Archaeology. 30 (3): 452–65. doi:10.1080/00438243.1999.9980423. JSTOR 124963.
  3. ^ "The history of Greenland – From dog sled to snowmobile". Greenland.com. Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2011.
  4. ^ "Migration to Greenland – the history of Greenland". Greenland.com. Archived from the original on 5 September 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2011.
  5. ^ Rasch, M.; Jensen, J. F. (1997). "Ancient Eskimo dwelling sites and Holocene relative sea-level changes in southern Disko Bugt, central West Greenland". Polar Research. 16 (2): 101–15. Bibcode:1997PolRe..16..101R. doi:10.3402/polar.v16i2.6629.
  6. ^ Ramsden, P.; Tuck, J. A. (2001). "A Comment on the Pre-Dorset/Dorset Transition in the Eastern Arctic". Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska. New Series. 1: 7–11. Archived from the original on 2022-04-08.
  7. ^ Grønnow, B. (1986). "Recent archaeological investigations of West Greenland caribou hunting". Arctic Anthropology. 23 (1/2): 57–80. JSTOR 40316103.
  8. ^ Rowley, G. (1940). "The Dorset culture of the eastern Arctic". American Anthropologist. 42 (3): 490–99. doi:10.1525/aa.1940.42.3.02a00080.
  9. ^ Gulløv, H. C.; Appelt, M. (2001). "Social bonding and shamanism among Late Dorset groups in High Arctic Greenland". The archaeology of shamanism. Routledge. p. 146. ISBN 0-415-25255-5.
  10. ^ Gulløv, H. C. (1996). In search of the Dorset culture in the Thule culture. The Paleoo Cultures of Greenland. Copenhagen: Danish Polar Center (Publication No. 1). pp. 201–14.
  11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Brown2000 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ Kudeba, N. (19 April 2014). Chapter 5, "Norse Explorers from Erik the Red to Leif Erikson", in Canadian Explorers.
  13. ^ "Viking Settlers in Greenland". Encyclopedia.com. Archived from the original on 10 June 2024. Retrieved 2023-12-18.
  14. ^ Boraas, Tracey (2002). Sweden. Capstone Press. p. 24. ISBN 0-7368-0939-2.
  15. ^ a b Diamond, Jared (2006). Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed. Harmondsworth [Eng.]: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-303655-5.
  16. ^ Cite error: The named reference Grove was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  17. ^ a b Arnold C. (June 2010) "Cold Did In the Norse", Earth Magazine. p. 9.
  18. ^ Behringer, Wolfgang (9 September 2009). Kulturgeschichte des Klimas: Von der Eiszeit zur globalen Erwärmung (in German). Munich: Dt. Taschenbuch-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-406-52866-8. Archived from the original on 24 June 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2022.
  19. ^ Alley, R.; Mayewski, P.; Peel, D.; Stauffer, B. (1996). "Twin ice cores from Greenland reveal history of climate change, more". Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union. 77 (22): 209–10. Bibcode:1996EOSTr..77R.209A. doi:10.1029/96EO00142. Archived from the original on 14 April 2018. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
  20. ^ "Why societies collapse Archived 2 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine". ABC Science.
  21. ^ Patterson, W. P.; Dietrich, K. A.; Holmden, C.; Andrews, J. T. (23 March 2010). "Two millennia of North Atlantic seasonality and implications for Norse colonies". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107 (12): 5306–5310. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.5306P. doi:10.1073/pnas.0902522107. PMC 2851789. PMID 20212157.
  22. ^ Ingstad, Helge; Stine Ingstad, Anne (2000). The Viking Discovery of America: The Excavation of a Norse Settlement in L'Anse Aux Meadows, Newfoundland. Breakwater Books. pp. 28–. ISBN 1-55081-158-4.
  23. ^ Bishop, Rosie R., et al. "A charcoal-rich horizon at Ø69, Greenland: evidence for vegetation burning during the Norse landnám?." Journal of Archaeological Science 40.11 (2013): 3890–902
  24. ^ Leone, Mark P.; Knauf, Jocelyn E. (2015). Historical Archaeologies of Capitalism. Springer. p. 211. ISBN 978-3-319-12760-6.
  25. ^ Folger, Tim. "Why Did Greenland's Vikings Vanish?". Archived from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
  26. ^ "Inuit were not the first people to settle in the Arctic", CBC News (Canada), 28 August 2014
  27. ^ Nebenzahl, Kenneth. Rand McNally Atlas of Columbus and The Great Discoveries (Rand McNally & Company; Genoa, Italy; 1990); The Cantino Planisphere, Lisbon, 1502, pp. 34–37.
  28. ^ Legal Status of Eastern Greenland Archived 11 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine, PCIJ Series A/B No. 53 (1933)
  29. ^ America First Committee (1990) [8 July 1941]. Doenecke, Justus D. (ed.). In Danger Undaunted: The Anti-Interventionist Movement of 1940–1941. Hoover Institution Press. ISBN 0-8179-8841-6. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2022.
  30. ^ Morison, Samuel Eliot (1975). History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, Volume 1: The Battle of the Atlantic September 1939 – May 1943. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. p. 62.
  31. ^ Speer, Albert. Inside the Third Reich, 1971.
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