For Arabic surnames beginning with a definite article, such as al-Khatib or al-Andalusi, only capitalize the definite article at the beginning of a sentence. So, "Fatima al-Khatib is a Syrian obstetrician. Al-Khatib completed her residency at Madeup Hospital in 1990."
Ottoman society was divided into millets based on religion and ethnicity, with Sunni Muslim Turks as the ruling class.[7]
Religious minorities (dhimmis) were forbidden from wearing certain types of clothing and certain colors of fabric, although these rules were frequently flaunted. They were also forbidden from building tall houses, new churches, and from ringing church bells.[8]
Talaat, one of the rulers of the empire during the 1910s, described the Christian subjects as giaours ("We have made unsuccessful attempts to convert the Ghiaur into a loyal Osmanli...There can therefore be no question of equality, until we have succeeded in our task of ottomanizing the Empire.")[9]
Christians were more highly educated than Muslims in Anatolia[10]
Christians made up the majority of merchants, importers, moneylenders, and bankers; they developed a petit bourgeoisie that led to resentment by Muslim neighbors[11]
The Tanzimat reforms, intended to provide all Ottomans with human rights and equality in the eyes of the law, caused further division among Muslims and Christians. Some Muslims felt that equality deprived them of their dominant role as the conquerors of Anatolia, e.g., Ahmed Cevdet Pasha.[12][13]
continued warfare between Greece and the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century; the Megali Idea[14]
Cretan question. Crete voted to join with Greece in 1908; Cretan officers and political leaders were required to swear fealty to the Greek king in 1910. Crete refused to allow the Ottoman Empire to appoint Muslim judges in Crete. In spring/summer 1910, there was an organized boycott of Greek businesses in Crete and the west coast of Turkey, especially Smyrna. Muslims in Smyrna threatened Greek business owners, telling them to close their shops and abjure their loyalty to Greece, beating them if they refused.[16]
Turkish protestors in Constantinople called for war: “We want war, war, war, war;” “Down with Greece! Greeks bow your heads.” (In response to the First Balkan War). Armies on both sides of the conflict massacred civilians; massacres of Muslims by Christian armies further inflamed the Turks' animosity toward their Christian neighbors.[17]
Boycotts continued in 1913 and 1914; Muslims who entered Christian-owned shops were beaten. The CUP organized the boycott. Those doing the beating were generally hired by the government for that purpose. The main goal was to destroy the Christian merchant class and replace it with a Turkish petit bourgeoisie.[18]
In 1913: "Posters, placed in schools and mosques, called on Muslims to exterminate the Greeks. Turkish newspapers published violent and inflammatory articles arousing their readers to persecution and massacre. These articles were said to be obviously instigated by the authorities. Cheap and crude lithographs were also produced showing Greeks cutting up Turkish babies or ripping open pregnant Muslim women, and various purely imaginary scenes. These were effective in provoking violence against the Greeks of Asia Minor."[19]
In 1913 and 1914, the Ottoman government began large-scale deportations of Greeks from their homes in Western Anatolia. Massacres followed in May and June 2014. Venizelos, the Greek PM, got wind of this and threatened to massacre Muslim civilians as revenge. Shirinian argues that these threats (and the fact that the Anatolian Greeks, unlike the Armenians and Assyrians, had a foreign power looking out for them) prevented a large-scale genocide early in the 1910s.[19]
WWI began in Europe on June 28, 1914. The CUP conscripted all men into the armed forces on July 21. Greeks and Armenians, including teens and old men, were sent to labor battalions.[20]
Deportations of Greeks resumed in 1916, under the guise that Greeks were aiding enemies of the Empire (namely Russia and Greece)[21]
Greeks subject to house searches & seizure of weapons[22]
minorities were viewed as seditious, a fifth column likely to ally with Europeans and betray the Empire[23]
"Even before Kemal’s landing at Samsun [May 19, 1919], deadly bands of çetes (organized brigands), especially those led by Topal Osman, had been engaged in continuous shooting, plundering, and raping of the defenseless Greek villagers in the Pontus region. With Kemal’s support, they stepped up their campaign with the objective of clearing the Greeks from the region by massacring the Greek population in cities such as Trebizond, Amasya, Pafra, Merzifon, and many others. By the spring of 1922, the bulk of the Greek population in the Pontus region, which was far from the war zone, had been deported to the interior. Along the way, tens of thousands perished from exposure, starvation, and disease. The dead and dying were thrown into rivers and ditches."[24]
To end the war and keep the peace, the Greek-Turkish population exchange occurred. The Turks had previously suggested a population exchange to get rid of their Greek minority.[25]
"The argument that there was a mutually signed agreement for the population exchange ignores the fact that the Ankara government had already declared its intention that no Greek should remain on Turkish soil before the exchange was even discussed. The final killing and expulsion of the Greek population of the Ottoman Empire in 1920–24 was part of a series of hostile actions that began even before Turkey’s entry into World War I."[26]
Pontian ethnic ancestry, in addition to the original Greek colonists: Hellenized ancient Anatolians and migrants to the area,[27][28] Caucasian peoples,[29][30] Turks[31]
History of ethnic/genetic diversity in the region[32]
Pontian genetics: high prevalence of haplogroups L, G2, and J2;[33] similarity to Lazes and Armenians;[34] genetic diversity indicating history of mixture[35]
^Caio Jade Puosso Cardoso Gouveia Costa (2020). "Retratos masculinos: Sobre Loren Cameron, Yukio Mishima e Johnny vai à guerra". Periódicus (in Portuguese). 1 (13): 115–130. doi:10.9771/peri.v1i13.35694. ISSN2358-0844.
^Connor, Steve (2011). "Jason and the Argot: Land Where Greeks' Ancient Language Survives". Independent. One possibility is that Romeyka speakers today are the direct descendants of ancient Greeks who lived along the Black Sea coast millennia ago – perhaps going back to the 6th or 7th centuries BC when the area was first colonised. But it is also possible that they may be the descendants of indigenous people or an immigrant tribe who were encouraged or forced to speak the language of the ancient Greek colonisers.
^Topalidis, Sam (March 2019). "An Introduction to Pontic Greek History". Australian Pontian Association 2019 Synapantema: 1. Today, Pontic Greeks are most probably descendants of these Greek colonists, indigenous Anatolians, Greeks who had moved relatively recently to Pontos, or other people who migrated to Pontos and converted to Christianity.
^Andriadze, Giorgi; Bitadze, Liana; Chikovani, Nino; Chitanava, David; Kekelidze, Mirab; Khmaladze, Eka; Laliashvili, Shorena; Shengelia, Ramaz (2017). "Comparative Y-Chromosome Research in East Georgia Population"(PDF). Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences. 11 (4): 121–124.
^"Rediscovering Romeyka". Romeyka Project. It is not clear how many of them [Romeika speakers] were assimilated native Caucasians or Turks entering Pontus together with the Ottomans from 1460 onwards, who adopted Greek.
^Andriadze, Giorgi; Bitadze, Liana; Chikovani, Nino; Chitanava, David; Kekelidze, Mirab; Khmaladze, Eka; Laliashvili, Shorena; Shengelia, Ramaz (2017). "Comparative Y-Chromosome Research in East Georgia Population"(PDF). Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences. 11 (4): 121.
^Andriadze, Giorgi; Bitadze, Liana; Chikovani, Nino; Chitanava, David; Kekelidze, Mirab; Khmaladze, Eka; Laliashvili, Shorena; Shengelia, Ramaz (2017). "Comparative Y-Chromosome Research in East Georgia Population"(PDF). Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences. 11 (4): 124. High incidence of L haplogroup in Pontic Greeks strengthened the theory about close genetic affinity between the Lazs residing along the Black Sea shore and the Greeks who migrated to Georgia.
^Andriadze, Giorgi; Bitadze, Liana; Chikovani, Nino; Chitanava, David; Kekelidze, Mirab; Khmaladze, Eka; Laliashvili, Shorena; Shengelia, Ramaz (2017). "Comparative Y-Chromosome Research in East Georgia Population"(PDF). Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences. 11 (4): 124. Armenian, Azerbaijani and Greek populations are more diverse genetically. This fact confirms the above thesis about multiple genetic mixtures occurring in those populations.
^Michailidis, Nikos (2016). Soundscapes of Trabzon: Music, Memory, and Power in Turkey (PhD). Princeton University. p. 62.
^Zografou, Magda; Pipyrou, Stavroula (2016). "Dance and Difference: Toward an Individualization of the Pontian Self". In Meglin, Joellen A.; Matluck Brooks, Lynn (eds.). Preserving Dance Across Time and Space. Taylor & Francis. p. 267. ISBN9781134906383. The Pontians are a population that originate from the historical area of Pontus in Anatolia, originally located around the southern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea.
^Travis, Hannibal (2009). "The Cultural and Intellectual Property Interests of the Indigenous Peoples of Turkey and Iraq". Texas Wesleyan Law Review. 15: 601. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1549804. S2CID153304089. The U.N. Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples requires states to provide an effective remedy to indigenous peoples deprived of their cultural, religious, or intellectual property (IP) without their free, prior and informed consent. The Declaration could prove to be an important safeguard for the indigenous peoples of Iraq and Turkey, the victims for centuries of massacres, assaults on their religious and cultural sites, theft and deterioration of their lands and cultural objects, and forced assimilation. These peoples, among them the Armenians, Assyrians, Greeks, and Yezidis of Turkey and Turkish-occupied Cyprus, and the Armenians, Assyrians, Yezidis, and Mandaeans of Iraq, have lost more than two-thirds of their peak populations, most of their cultural and religious sites, and thousands of priceless artifacts and specimens of visual art.
Fann Bouteneff, Patricia (2007). "Persecution and perfidy: women's and men's worldviews in Pontic Greek folktales". In Buturović, Amila; Schick, İrvin Cemil (eds.). Women in the Ottoman Balkans: Gender, Culture, and History. I. B. Tauris. pp. 45–72. ISBN9781845115050.
Shirinian, George N. (2017). "The Background to the Late Ottoman Genocides". In Shirinian, George N. (ed.). Genocide in the Ottoman Empire: Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks, 1913-1923. Berghahn Books. ISBN9781785334337.
