User:Mandyal Sahil

Kermish language is a constructed language.

Here I'm presenting it's grammar.

Morphology

Pronouns

	Nominative	Oblique	Reflexive	Possessive determiner	Possessive pronoun
1st pers. sing.	मी	मिखण/मिथै		म्यारू	म्यारू
2nd pers. sing./pl.	(तु/त्वे inf), (थांउ f /तीमी sf)	(तुम्सणी/तुम्थै inf), (थांऊ f /तुम्सणी/तुम्थै sf)		(त्यारू inf), (तुम्हरु sf /थांउझु f)	(तुम्सणी sf), (तुम्हरो sf /थांउझु f)
3rd pers. sing.	व, वे, ए, सि	वीँ, वे, ए, से		वीँ, वे, ए, से	वीँ, वे, ए, से
1st pers. pl.	आमि	आम्सणी/आम्थै		हम्रो	हमारो
3rd pers. pl.	तौंल, श्या, सी	तौं		तौं	तौं

Cases

	Transliteration (English)	Standard (Written)	Standard (Spoken : Fluent)	Standard (Spoken–Variant)	Lectal (literary)
Nominative				न, ल
Vocative	Hey	हो	हो	हो	हो
Accusative	to	सणि, मु	अःण्, उँ	सणि, हणि, थणि, झणि, खणि, अणि, अ:णि, मु, उ, म्	थइँ, थइ, तइ, तै, ते, खइँ, कइँ, कइ, कै, के
Instrumental	by	न	अँ	न, न्, अँ	च, स
Dative I	for	खुणि	क्वँ	खुणि, कुणि, कुइँ, क्विं, क्वँ	कुतइ, कुतै
Dative II	for the sake of	बाना	बाँ	बाना, बान, बान्, बाँ	वास्ता, वात्ता, अत्ता, खातिर, लइ, ले, लिज्या,
Ablative	From	बटि (	बट़्	बटि, बट, बऱि, बऱ्, बट़ि, बट़्	बटिन, बटिग, न, च, चला
Genitive	Of	स्य, स्यु, स्यि, स्या	स्य	ह्य, अ/आ, इ/ई, उ/ऊ, ए/ऐ, ओ/औ	रु, रि, रा, कु, कि, का
Locative	Onto, on, into, in	उन्दु(onto), फुण्डु(on), इन्दु (into), पेटु (in)	उँ, पुँ, इँ, प्य्ट़्	उन्दु, उन्द, उन्, उँ, फुण्डु, फुण्ड, फुण्, फुन्, पुन्, पुँ, इन्दु, इन्द, इन्, इँ, पेटु, प्याट्, प्य्ट, प्यट़्	N/A

Numerals

Number	Numeral	Written	IAST
0	०	सुन्ने	sunne
1	१	यऽक	yak
2	२	दुई / द्वी	duī
3	३	तीन	tīn
4	४	चार	cār
5	५	पाँच	pā̃c or pā̃
6	६	छॉ / छै	chŏ
7	७	सात	sāt
8	੮	आठ	āṭh
9	९	नउ / नौ	naü

Verb conjugation

Conjugation of the verb दॆख्ण (deykhna) "to look", in all three tenses in Garhwali.

Present tense

	singular	plural
1st person	मि mi दॆखु dykhu मि दॆखु mi dykhu I look	हमल haml द्याख/ dyākh/ हमुन hamun द्याख dyakh हमल द्याख/ हमुन द्याख haml dyākh/ hamun dyakh we look
2nd person	ति ti दॆखु dykhu ति दॆखु ti dykhu you look	तिल til द्याख/ dyākh/ तुमुन tumun द्याख dyākh तिल द्याख/ तुमुन द्याख til dyākh/ tumun dyākh you look
3rd person	सु su दॆखु dykhu सु दॆखु su dykhu He looks	उन un द्याख dyākh उन द्याख un dyākh they look
	सॊ sw दॆखु dykhu सॊ दॆखु sw dykhu She looks
	इ i दॆखु dykhu इ दॆखु i dykhu It looks (nu.)
	सि si दॆखु dykhu सि दॆखु si dykhu It looks (masc.)
	सॆ sy दॆखु dykhu सॆ दॆखु sy dykhu It looks (fem.)

Past tense

	singular	plural
1st person	मि mi दॆखि dëkhi मि दॆखि mi dëkhi I looked	आमील āmīl लटोलि laṭoli आमील लटोलि āmīl laṭoli we wrote
2nd person	ति ti दॆखि dëkhi ति दॆखि ti dëkhi You looked	तीमील tīmīl लटोलि laṭoli तीमील लटोलि tīmīl laṭoli you wrote
3rd person	तॊ tö दॆखि dëkhi तॊ दॆखि tö dëkhi He/She looked	तौंल tãũl लटोलि laṭoli तौंल लटोलि tãũl laṭoli they wrote
	तॆ të दॆखि dëkhi तॆ दॆखि të dëkhi It looked (masc. & fem.)
	ऎ ë दॆखि dëkhi ऎ दॆखि ë dëkhi This looked
	ऒ ö दॆखि dëkhi ऒ दॆखि ö dëkhi That looked

Future tense

	singular	plural
1st person	मी mī लटोएंछु laṭoenchu मी लटोएंछु mī laṭoenchu I will look	आमी āmī लटोएंछौं laṭoenchãũ आमी लटोएंछौं āmī laṭoenchãũ we will look
2nd person	तु tu लटोएंछै laṭoenchai तु लटोएंछै tu laṭoenchai you will look	तीमी tīmī लटोएंछौं laṭoenchãũ तीमी लटोएंछौं tīmī laṭoenchãũ you will look
3rd person	सु su लटोएंछन् laṭoenchan सु लटोएंछन् su laṭoenchan he will look	तौ tau लटोएंछन् laṭoenchan तौ लटोएंछन् tau laṭoenchan they will look

Phonology

Consonants

		Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Retroflex	Post-alv./ Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Plosive / Affricate	voiceless	p	t	ts	ʈ	tʃ	k
	aspriated	pʰ	tʰ	tsʰ	ʈʰ	tʃʰ	kʰ
	voiced	b	d	dz	ɖ	dʒ	ɡ
	breathy	bʱ	dʱ	dzʱ	ɖʱ	dʒʱ	gʱ
Fricative	voiceless			s		ʃ		ɦ
	voiced			z
Nasal		m mʱ		n nʱ	ɳ		(ŋ)
Lateral				l lʱ	ɭ
Trill/Tap				r	ɽ ɽʱ
Approximant						j	w

• [ŋ] is heard when a nasal occurs before velar stops.
• [f] can be heard as an allophone of pʰ.
• Aspirated versions of m, n,ɳ, l,ɭ, r, w can be considered as separate phonemes.

Vowels

The vowels of Mandeali language are shown below.

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i iː		u uː
Mid	(e) eː	ə əː	(o) oː
Open-mid	ɛː		ɔː
Open		aː

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
Close	iː		uː
Near-close	ɪ		ʊ
Close-mid	eː	ə əː	oː
Open-mid	ɛː		ɔː
Open		aː

• There are nasalized variations of the following vowels /ĩ ũ ẽ õ ɛ̃ ɔ̃ ã/.
• Vowel sounds are often nasalized when occurring before a word-medial or word-final /n/, except when /n/ occurs before a word-final vowel.
• /ʊ/ can have a marginal upgliding allophone [ʊᵛ] when occurring before a /a/ vowel sound.
• A word-final /aː/ is realized as a back sound [ɑː] and may also drift toward a centralized [äː] sound.

Morphology

Nouns

Mandeali distinguishes two genders (Masculine and feminine), two numbers (Singular and plural) and four cases of direct, oblique, vocative, and ergative. Oblique also serves as locative and ergative also performs the function of instrumental. Nouns may be further divided into extended and unextended declensional subtypes, with the former characteristically consisting of masculines ending in unaccented -ā and feminines in -ī.

The following tables displays the suffix paradigms.

Masculine Dir. Obl. Voc. Erg. unEx. Sing. -ā -आ -ē -ए Pl. -ā -आ -ō -ओ -ē -ए Ex. Sing. -ā -आ -ē -ए -ĕā -एआ -ē -ए Pl. -ē -ए -ĕā -एआ -ĕō -एओ -ē -ए

Feminine Dir. Obl. Voc. Erg. Sing. -ē -ए -ē -ए Pl. -ā -आ -ō -ओ -ē -ए

The following table of noun declensions shows those suffix paradigms in action. Examples include ghōṛā "stallion", mhaṭhī "girl", ghəːr "house", kāndh "wall".

Extended Dir. Obl. Voc. Erg. Masc. Sing. ghōṛā घोड़ा ghōṛe घोड़े ghōṛĕā घोड़ेया ghōṛe घोड़े Pl. ghōṛe घोड़े ghōṛĕā घोड़ेया ghōṛĕō घोड़ेयो ghōṛē घोड़े Fem. Sing. mhaṭhī म्हठी mhaṭhī(ā) म्हठी(या) mhaṭhīē म्हठीए mhaṭhīē म्हठीए Pl. mhaṭhīā म्हठीया mhaṭhīō म्हठीयो mhaṭhīē म्हठीए

Unextended Dir. Obl. Voc. Erg. Masc. Sing. ghar घर gharā घरा gharā घरा gharē घरे Pl. ghar घर gharā घरा gharō घरो gharē घरे Fem. Sing. kāndh कांध kāndhā कांधा kāndhē कांधे kāndhē कांधे Pl. kāndhā कांधा kāndhō कांधो kāndhē कांधे

Adjectives

Adjectives may be divided into declinable and indeclinable categories. Declinable adjectives have endings that change by the gender, number and case of the noun that they qualify. Declinable adjective have endings that are similar but much simpler than those of nouns:

			Sing.	Pl.
Declin.	Masc.	Dir.	-ā -आ	-ē -ए
		Obl.	-ē -ए	-ē -ए
	Fem.		-ī -ई	-ī -ई
Indeclin.

Indeclinable adjectives are invariable and can end in either consonants or vowels (including ā and ī ). The direct masculine singular (-ā) is the citation form. Most adjectives ending in consonants are indeclinable.

Declinable adjective bānkā (बांका) "good" in attributive use

Dir. Obl. Voc. Erg. Masc. Sing. bānkā ghōṛā bānkē ghōṛē bānkē ghoṛĕā bānkē ghōṛē Pl. bānkē ghōṛē bānkē ghōṛĕā bānkē ghōṛĕō bānkē ghōṛē Fem. Sing. bānkī mhaṭhī bānkī mhaṭhīē bānkī mhaṭhīē Pl. bānkī mhaṭhīā bānkī mhaṭhīō bānkī mhaṭhīē

Dir. Obl. Voc. Erg. Masc. Sing. bānkā ghar bānkē gharā bānkē gharā bānkē gharē Pl. bānkē ghar bānkē gharā bānkē gharō bānkē gharē Fem. Sing. bānkī kāndh bānkī kāndhā bānkī kāndhē bānkī kāndhē Pl. bānkī kāndhā bānkī kāndhō bānkī kāndhē

Indeclinable adjective लाल "red" in attributive use

Dir. Obl. Voc. Erg. Masc. Sing. xarāb ghṑṛā ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਘੋੜਾ خَراب گھوڑا xarāb ghṑṛē ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਘੋੜੇ خَراب گھوڑے xarāb ghṑṛiā ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਘੋੜਿਆ خَراب گھوڑیا (xarāb ghṑṛē) (ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਘੋੜੇ) (خَراب گھوڑے) Pl. xarāb ghṑṛē ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਘੋੜੇ خَراب گھوڑے xarāb ghṑṛiā̃ ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਘੋੜਿਆਂ خَراب گھوڑیاں xarāb ghṑṛiō ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਘੋੜਿਓ خَراب گھوڑیو Fem. Sing. xarāb sakhī ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਸਖੀ خَراب سَکھی xarāb sakhīē ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਸਖੀਏ خَراب سَکِھیے Pl. xarāb sakhīā̃ ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਸਖੀਆਂ خَراب سَکِھیاں xarāb sakhīō ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਸਖੀਓ خَراب سَکِھیو

Dir. Obl. Voc. Abl. Loc./ Instr. Masc. Sing. xarāb ghàr ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਘਰ خَراب گَھر xarāb ghàr ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਘਰ خَراب گَھر xarāb ghàrā ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਘਰਾ خَراب گَھرا xarāb ghàrȭ ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਘਰੋਂ خَراب گَھروں xarāb ghàrē ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਘਰੇ خَراب گَھرے Pl. xarāb ghàr ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਘਰ خَراب گَھر xarāb ghàrā̃ ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਘਰਾਂ خَراب گَھراں xarāb ghàrō ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਘਰੋ خَراب گَھرو xarāb ghàrī̃ ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਘਰੀਂ خَراب گَھرِیں Fem. Sing. xarāb gall ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਗੱਲ خَراب گَلّ (xarāb gallē) (ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਗੱਲੇ) (خَراب گَلّے) xarāb gallȭ ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਗੱਲੋਂ خَراب گَلّوں xarāb gallē ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਗੱਲੇ خَراب گَلّے Pl. xarāb gallā̃ ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਗੱਲਾਂ خَراب گَلّاں xarāb gallō ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਗੱਲੋ خَراب گَلّو xarāb gallī̃ ਖ਼ਰਾਬ ਗੱਲੀਂ خَراب گَلِّیں

Postpositions

Mandeali uses a system of particles, known as postpositions. Their use with a noun or verb requires the noun or verb to take the oblique case, and they are the locus of grammatical function, or "case-marking"

	Transliteration	Gurmukhi	NotesMay use dē
Used alone	rā, rī, rē	रा,री,रे	genitive marker; declines like an adjective. Example: "X rā/rī/etc. Y" means "X's Y", with rā/rī/etc. agreeing with Y.
	jō	जो	marks the indirect object (dative marker), or, if definite, the direct object (accusative marker).
	lā/lē/tē	ला/ले/ते/	ablative marker, "from"
	khō	खो	orientative marker; "towards"
	tik,tikkar	तिक/तिक्कर	terminative marker, "until, up to"
	vikhē	ਵਿਖੇ	locative marker, "at (a specific location)", e.g. Hōshiārpur vikhē, "at Hoshiarpur" (a city). Often colloquially replaced with 'tē
May use a secondary preposition	minjh	मिंझ	inessive marker, "in." Often contracted to 'anjh
	kanē/sāugī	कने/साउगी	comitative marker, "with" Often contracted to nē/kē
	gās	गास	superessive marker, "on" or "at."
	bālē	बाले	possessive marker; "with" (as in possession) e.g. म्हठीया बाले "in the girl's possession."
	bārē	बारे	"about"
	kaṭhē	कठे	benefactive marker; "for"
	sāhī̃	साहीं	comparative marker; "like" (in resemblance)
	bājhī	बाझी	abessive marker; "without"
	bālē/nēḍē	बाले/नेडे	"near"
	lāgē	लागे	apudessive marker; "adjacent/next to"
	bhītar	भीतर	"inside"
	bāhar	बाहर	"outside"

Other postpositions are adverbs, following their obliqued targets either directly or with the inflected genitive linker rē; e.g. gharā (rē) minjh "in the house", ghōṛē (rē) kanē/sāugī "with the stallion". But nowadays it's more common to not use the genitive linker rē

Pronouns

Personal

Mandeali has personal pronouns for the first and second persons, while for the third person demonstratives are used, which can be categorized deictically as near and remote. Pronouns do not distinguish gender. But Demonstratives distinguish between 3 genders i.e. masculine, feminine and neuter in oblique and ergative cases.

The language has a T-V distinction in tū and tusse. This latter "polite" form is grammatically plural.

1st pn. 2nd pn. Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl. Direct mẽ ਮੈਂ مَیں asī̃ ਅਸੀਂ اَسِی tū̃ ਤੂੰ تُوں tusī̃ ਤੁਸੀਂ تُسی Ergative (Oblique) asā̃ ਅਸਾਂ اَساں tẽ ਤੈਂ تَیں tusā̃ ਤੁਸਾਂ تُساں Dative mennū̃ ਮੈਨੂੰ مَینُوں sānnū̃ ਸਾਨੂੰ سانُوں tennū̃ ਤੈਨੂੰ تَینُوں tuā̀nnū̃ ਤੁਹਾਨੂੰ تُہانُوں Ablative metthȭ ਮੈਥੋਂ مَیتھوں sātthȭ ਸਾਥੋਂ ساتھوں tetthȭ ਤੈਥੋਂ تَیتھوں tuā̀tthȭ ਤੁਹਾਥੋਂ تُہاتھوں Genitive mērā, mērē, mērī, mērīā̃ ਮੇਰਾ, ਮੇਰੇ, ਮੇਰੀ, ਮੇਰੀਆਂ میرا، میرے، میری، میرِیاں sāḍḍā, sāḍḍē, sāḍḍī, sāḍḍīā̃ ਸਾਡਾ, ਸਾਡੇ, ਸਾਡੀ, ਸਾਡੀਆਂ ساڈا، ساڈے، ساڈی، ساڈِیاں tērā, tērē, tērī, tērīā̃ ਤੇਰਾ, ਤੇਰੇ, ਤੇਰੀ, ਤੇਰੀਆਂ تیرا، تیرے، تیری، تیرِیاں tuā̀ḍḍā, tuā̀ḍḍē, tuā̀ḍḍī, tuā̀ḍḍīā̃ ਤੁਹਾਡਾ, ਤੁਹਾਡੇ, ਤੁਹਾਡੀ, ਤੁਹਾਡੀਆਂ تُہاڈا، تُہاڈے، تُہاڈی، تُہاڈِیاں

Demonstrative Relative Interrogative Near Remote Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl. Sing. Pl. Direct ḗ ਇਹ ایہہ ṓ ਉਹ اوہ jō, jin ਜੋ, ਜਿਨ جو، جن koṇ, kin ਕੌਣ, ਕਿਨ کوݨ، کن Oblique is, ēs ਇਸ, ਏਸ ایس ḗnnā̃ ਇਹਨਾਂ ایہناں us, ōs ਉਸ, ਓਸ اوس ṓnnā̃ ਉਹਨਾਂ اوہناں jī, jis ਜੀ, ਜਿਸ جی، جس jḗnnā̃ ਜਿਹਨਾਂ جہناں kī, kis ਕੀ, ਕਿਸ کی، کس kḗnnā̃ ਕਿਹਨਾਂ کہناں

The dative & ablative personal pronouns are analyzed as the oblique forms merging with suffixes, e.g. tusā̃ + nū̃ > tuhānū̃.

Unlike other pronouns, genitive pronouns essentially function in a manner similar to regular adjectives, declining in agreement with their direct objects. Moreover, koṇ and jō are colloquially replaced by kḗṛā "which?" jḗṛā "which". Indefinites include kōī (obl. kisē) "some(one)" and kújj "some(thing)". The reflexive pronoun is āp, with a genitive of āpṇā. The pronominal obl. -nā̃ also occurs in ik, iknā̃ "some", hōr, hōrnā̃ "others", sáb, sábnā̃ "all".

Derivates

Based on table in Shackle (2003:604). Indefinites are extended forms of the interrogative set; e.g. kite "somewhere", kade "sometimes". The multiple versions under certain categories are dialectal variations.

		Interrogative	Relative	Demonstrative
				Near	Remote
Date		kiddaṇ	jiddaṇ		oddaṇ
Time	Regular	kad	jad	huṇ	tad
	Emphatic	kade	jade	huṇe	tade
		kádī	jádī	húṇī	tádī
	Ablative	kadõ	jadõ	eddõ	oddõ
					tadõ
Place	Regular	kitthe	jitthe	etthe	otthe
	Ablative	kitthõ	jitthõ	etthõ	otthõ
Direction	Regular	kíddar	jíddar	éddar	óddar
	Ablative	kíddrõ	jíddrõ	éddrõ	óddrõ
Manner		kiddā̃	jiddā̃	eddā̃	oddā̃
		kiñj	jiñj	eñj	oñj
		kivẽ	jivẽ	evẽ	ovẽ
Reason		kyõ	jyõ	eõ	oõ
Quality		kío jíā	(jío) jíā	éo jíā	óo jíā
Quantity		kinnā	jinnā	ennā	onnā
Magnitude		kiḍḍā	jiḍḍā	eḍḍā	oḍḍā

The demonstrative prefixes e and o vary from [ɪ~e~ɛ] and [ʊ~o~ɔ] respectively (resulting in varied spellings).

Pronominal suffixes

Some varieties of the Majhi dialect of Punjabi (documented thus far in Lahore, and the Gujrat district) have pronominal suffixes that are appended to verbs, and which replace dropped pronominal arguments.

Person	Singular	Plural
2	-ī	-jē
3	-s(ū)	-ne

Verbs

Overview

The Punjabi verbal system is can be described largely in terms of aspect and mood. Most Punjabi verbs do not inflect for tense—the only verb which does is the copular verb ਹੈ / ہے. Some linguists have described aspectual forms of Punjabi verbs as being inflections for tense; however, this assessment is flawed as these verb forms can be used the same way in sentences which refer to any time with respect to the situation of the speaker or writer.

The copular verb has two tense forms which can be described as "remote" and "non-remote," as they indicate a metaphorical distance or closeness to the situation. "Past" and "present" can be understood as default assumptions for the times which the remote and non-remote tenses refer to respectively, however, these temporal references are not required of these tenses. Rather, time can largely be understood to exist extralinguistically in Punjabi. The remote forms of the copula, ਸੀ / سی, do not resemble the non-remote forms ਹੈ / ہے phonetically. The copula does not behave like a full lexical verb in Punjabi and does not form part of serial verb constructions; rather than taking on the meaning of the existential verb 'to be' or 'to become' ਹੋਣਾ / ہونٌا, it means 'being' without any aspectual component. The copula is also not obligatory in a Punjabi clause. A full lexical verb in Punjabi on the other hand, does exhibit grammatical aspect. Due the close meaning of ਹੋਣਾ / ہونٌا and the copula, they are sometimes described as forms of the same lexeme; however, because they are directly derived from two distinct Sanskrit words and do not function alike grammatically, they are better described as two different but complementary words.

Finite verbal agreement is with the nominative subject, except in the transitive perfective, where it can be with the direct object, with the erstwhile subject taking the ergative construction -ne (see postpositions above). The perfective aspect thus displays split ergativity.

Tabled below on the left are the paradigms for the major Gender and Number termination (GN), along the line of that introduced in the adjectives section. To the right are the paradigms for the Person and Number termination (PN), used by the subjunctive (which has 1st pl. -īe) and future (which has 1st pl. -ā̃).

(GN) Sing. Pl. Masc. -ā -ē Fem. -ī -īā̃

(PN) 1st. 2nd. 3rd. Sing. -ā̃ -ē~ -ē Pl. -ā̃/īē -ō -aṇ

Copula

The Punjabi copula functions as a class of its own and does not share the properties of full lexical verbs in the language, nor does it take on the role of an auxiliary verb. Unlike these other word classes, the copula does not form a part of verb phrases, and where it is present alongside a full verb construction it generally makes a semantic distinction related to the notion of existence, rather than predicating for the act of being. For this reason, it can be said that the Punjabi copula is not wholly verbal in function.

Number	Singular			Plural
Person	1st	2nd	3rd	1st	2nd	3rd
Pronoun	mẽ	tū̃	ḗ/ṓ	asī̃	tusī̃	ḗ/ṓ
Present-tense copula	hā̃	hẽ	he	hā̃	hō	han
Past-tense copula	sā̃	sẽ	sī	sā̃	sō	san
Subjunctive copula	hōvā̃	hōvẽ	hōvē	hōvā̃	hōvō	hōṇ

• Two infrequent inflected forms of the present-tense copula he are haō (plural second person), distinguishing the standard hō for T-V distinction usage, and heṇ (plural third person). In addition, two past tense copulas, hesī and hesaṇ are used respectively with singular and plural forms of third persons. These forms, like the uninflected forms he and sī, can be used with both the genders.
• In the spoken language, the past tense copula sī can remain completely uninflected, and remain applicable for all three persons and both numbers. Some less frequently used forms of sī are saō, sāō, and sau, used as 2nd-person plural copulas, distinguishing the standard sō for T-V distinction usage.

Some non-standard major dialects such as Doabi decline the past-tense and present-tense copulas more along number and gender than for number and person:

Gender	Masculine				Feminine
Number	Singular		Plural		Singular		Plural
Present-tense copula	hegā		hegē		hegī		hegīā̃
Past-tense copula	sīgā		sīgē		sīgī		sīgīā̃

Conjugations

Personal Forms of "hoṇā (to be)"

mood	tense	singular						plural
		1P – mẽ		2P – tū̃		3P – eh, oh		1P – asī̃		2P – tusī̃		3P – eh, oh
		m.	f.	m.	f.	m.	f.	m.	f.	m.	f.	m.	f.
indicative	present	hā̃		hẽ		he		hā̃		hō		han
	imperfect	sā̃		sẽ		sī		sā̃		sō		san
	perfect	hōyā	hōī	hōyā	hōī	hōyā	hōī	hōē	hōiyā̃	hōē	hōiyā̃	hōē	hōiyā̃
	future	hōvā̃gā	hōvā̃gī	hōvē̃gā	hōvē̃gī	hōvēgā	hōvēgī	hōvā̃gē	hōvā̃giyā̃	hōvōgē	hōvōgiyā̃	hōwṇgē	hōwṇgiyā̃
presumptive	all	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?	?
subjunctive	present	?		?		?		?		?		?
	future	hōvā̃		hōvē̃		hōvē		hōviye		hōvō		hōwṇ
contrafactual	past	hōndā	hōndī	hōndō̃	hōndiyō̃	hōndā	hōndī	hōndē	hōndīā̃	hōndē	hōndīā̃	hōndē	hōndīā̃
imperative	present	—		hō		—		—		hōō		—
	future	—		hōī̃		—		—		hōyō		—

Forms

The sample verb is intransitive naccṇā "to dance", and the sample inflection is 3rd. masc. sing. (PN = e, GN = ā) where applicable.

	Non-aspectual	Aspectual
Non-finite	Root * nacc Dir. Infinitive/ Gerund/ Obligatory *-ṇ-ā naccṇā Obl. Infinitive *-(a)ṇ naccaṇ Abl. Infinitive *-ṇ-ȭ naccṇȭ Conjunctive *-kē nacckē Agentive/ Prospective *-(a)ṇ-hār(ā), *-(a)ṇ-vāḷ-GN naccaṇhār(ā), naccaṇvāḷā	Adjectivals. Perfective *-GN hō-GN nacciā hōiā Imperfective *-d-GN hō-GN naccdā hōiā Adverbial. Obl. of adjectival. Imperfective *-d-ē, -d-iā̃ naccdē, naccdiā̃
Finite	Contingent Future *-PN naccē Definite Future *-PN-g-GN naccēgā Imperatives. Sing. Pl. Present nacc naccō Aorist naccī̃ nacciō	Aspectuals plotted against copulas. Perfective Habitual Continuous *-(i)-GN *-d-GN * ráí-GN Present h-? nacciā he naccdā he nacc ríā he / naccdā piā he Past s-? nacciā sī naccdā sī nacc ríā sī / naccdā piā sī Subjunctive ho-v-PN nacciā hōvē naccdā hōvē Presumptive ho-v-PN-g-GN nacciā hōvēgā naccdā hōvēgā Contrafactual hun-d-GN nacciā hundā naccdā hundā Unspecified nacciā naccdā

Light verbs

Similarly to Hindustani, Punjabi appends "light" or auxiliary verbs onto other verbs to nuance their meaning.

Light Verb	Explanation	Main Verb	Examples
jāṇā "to go"	Shows a sense of completeness of the action, finality, or change of state.	1. āoṇā "to come" 2. khāṇā "to eat" 3. marṇā "to die" 4. pīṇā "to drink" 5. bahiṇā "to sit" 6. hoṇā "to happen"	1. ā jāṇā "to arrive" "to come over" 2. khā jāṇā "to eat up (all/everything/completely)" 3. mar jāṇā "to be dead" 4. pī jāṇā "to drink up (all/everything/completely)" "to gulp" 5. bahi jāṇā "to sit down" 6. ho jāṇā "to happen (completely)"
laiṇā "to take" (dialectal: ghinṇā)	Suggests that the (usually planned/expected) action is completed and the benefit of the action flows towards the doer. This auxiliary verb can also be used to soften down the tone of imperatives (commands) and usually is used to give suggestions. Nuance of planned/expected action is not present.	1. vekhṇā "to see" "to look" 2. karṇā 3. mārṇā "to hit" "to kill"	1. vekh laiṇā "to take a look" 2. kar laiṇā "to do (something fully for oneself)" "to have finished doing something" 3. mār laiṇā "to (try to) kill (oneself)"
deṇā "to give"	Suggests that the (usually planned/expected) action was completed and the benefit of the action flows away from the doer. This auxiliary verb can also be used to soften down the tone of imperatives (commands) and usually is used to ask for favours. Nuance of planned/expected action is not present.	1. paṛhṇā 2. mārṇā 3. karṇā	1. paṛh denā "to read (for someone)" "to read out" 2. mār deṇā "to kill", "to kill off", "to murder" 3. kār deṇā "to do (something completely for someone else and not oneself)"
āoṇā "to come"	The meaning conveyed is the doer went somewhere to do something and came back after completing the action. This can also mean "to know how to" in the indefinite/habitual present tense – to know how to do: karnā ānā	1. karṇā	1. kar āoṇā "to finish (and come back)", "to do (and return)";