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Evolution of the discipline

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Before the invention of writing, the preservation and transmission of historical knowledge were limited to oral traditions.[1] Early forms of historical writing mixed facts with mythological elements, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh from ancient Mesopotamia and Homer's Odyssey from ancient Greece.[2] Published in the 5th century BCE, the Histories by Herodotus (c. 484–420 BCE)[a] was one of the foundational texts of the Western historical tradition, putting more emphasis on factual accounts and evidence-based inquiry than previous works.[4] Thucydides (c. 460–400 BCE) followed and further refined Herodotus's approach but focused more on particular political and military developments in contrast to the wide scope and ethnographic elements of Herodotus's work.[5] Roman historiography was heavily influenced by Greek traditions. It often included not only historical facts but also moral judgments of historical figures.[b] One school used an annalistic style, arranging past events chronologically by year, while other historians preferred continuous prose.[7]

Photo of historical manuscript written in black ink
Sima Qian's Shiji was one of the earliest comprehensive accounts of the history of China and the wider world known to the Chinese.[8]

Another complex tradition of historical writing emerged in ancient China, with early precursors starting in the late 2nd millenium BCE. It considered annals the highest form of historical writing and emphasized verification through sources. This tradition was associated with Confucian philosophy and closely tied to the government in the form of the ruling dynasty. Chinese historians established a coherent and systematic method for recording historical events earlier than other traditions.[9] Of particular influence was the work of Sima Qian (c. 145–86/85 BCE), whose meticulous research method and inclusion of alternative viewpoints shaped subsequent historiographical standards.[10] In ancient India, historical writing was closely associated with religion. It often did not clearly distinguish between fact and myth, as seen in works like the Mahabharata.[11]

In Europe starting in late antiquity and continuing through the medieval period, history was primarily documented by the clergy in the form of chronicles. Christian historians drew from Greco-Roman and Jewish traditions and reinterpreted the past from a religious perspective as a narrative highlighting God's divine plan.[12] Influential contributions shaping this tradition were made by Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 260/275–339 CE), Augustine of Hippo (354–430 CE), and Bede (c. 672/3–735 CE).[13] In the Arab world, historical writing was similarly influenced by religion, interpreting the past from a Muslim perspective. It placed great importance on the chain of transmission to preserve the authority of historical accounts.[14] Al-Tabari (c. 838/839–923 CE) wrote a comprehensive history, spanning from the creation of the world to his present day. Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406 CE) reflected on philosophical issues underlying the practice of historians, such as universal patterns underlying historical changes and the limits of historical truth.[15]

With the emergence of the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) in China, historical writing became increasingly institutionalized as a bureau for the writing of history was established in 629 CE. This approach followed a strict distinction between historical events and the historical texts describing them. The bureau also oversaw the establishment of Veritable Records, a comprehensive compilation serving as the basis of the standard national history.[16] Historical writing in the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE) happened in a variety of historical genres, including encyclopedias, biographies, and historical novels, while history became a standard subject in the Chinese educational system.[17] Influenced by the Chinese model, a tradition of historical writing emerged in Japan in the 8th century CE. It was also closely related to the imperial household, but Japanese historians placed less importance on a critical evaluation of sources than their Chinese counterparts.[18]

During the Renaissance and the early modern period, the different historical traditions came increasingly into contact with each other.[19] Starting in 14th-century Europe, Renaissance humanists used sophisticated text criticism to scrutinize earlier religious historical works, which contributed to the secularization of historical writing. During the 15th to 17th centuries, historians regarded history as a didactic tool. They increasingly targeted the general public while the invention of the printing press made written documents more accessible and affordable. At the same time, empiricist thought associated with the scientific revolution questioned the possibility of arriving at universal historical truths.[20] During the Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century, historical writing was influenced by rationalism and skepticism. Historians tried to uncover deeper patterns and meaning in the past while the scope of historical inquiry expanded to include societal and economic topics as well as comparisons between different cultures.[21]

In China during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), public interest in historical writings and their availability also increased. In addition to the continuation of the Veritable Records by official governmental historians, non-official works by private scholars flourished. These scholars tended to use a more creative style and sometimes challenged orthodox accounts.[22] In the Islamic world, new traditions of historical writings emerged in the Safavid, Mughal, and Ottoman empires.[23] Meanwhile in the Americas, European explorers recorded and interpreted indigenous narratives, which had been passed down through oral and pictographic practices. These views sometimes challenged traditional European perspectives.[24]

Painting of an older man with white hair dressed in a formal black garment with an ornate badge on his chest
Leopold von Ranke revolutionized the standards of historical scholarship by introducing a thorough evaluation of primary sources.[25]

Historical writing was transformed in the 19th century as it became more professional and scientific. Following the work of Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886), a systematic method of source criticism was widely accepted while academic institutions dedicated to history were established in the form of university departments, professional associations, and journals.[26] In tune with this scientific outlook, Auguste Comte (1798–1857) formulated the school of positivism and aimed to discover general laws of history, similar to the laws of nature studied by physicists.[27] Building on the philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831), Karl Marx (1818–1883) described one such general law, arguing that economic forces and class struggles are the fundamental drivers of historical change.[28] Another influential development was the spread of European historiographical methods, which became the dominant approach to the academic study of the past worldwide.[29]

In the 20th century, traditional historical assumptions and practices were challenged while the scope of historical research broadened.[30] The Annales school used insights from sociology, psychology, and economics to study long-term developments.[31] Various historians covered unconventional perspectives, focusing on the experiences of marginalized groups through approaches such as history from below, microhistory, and feminist history.[32] Postcolonialism aimed to undermine the hegemony of the Western approach and postmodernism rejected the claim to a single universal truth in history.[33] Intellectual historians examined the historical development of ideas.[34] Authoritarian regimes, like Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, manipulated historical narratives for ideological purposes.[35] In the second half of the century, attempts to write histories of the world as a whole gained momentum, while technological advances fostered the growth of quantitative and digital history.[36]

References

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Notes

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  1. ^ Herodotus is traditionally considered the "father of history" but has also been called the "father of lies" because not all of his accounts were reliable.[3]
  2. ^ This aspect is also found to some degree in works of Greek historians, such as Polybius (c. 200–118 BCE).[6]

Citations

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  1. ^
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  3. ^ Woolf 2019, pp. 22–23
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  8. ^ Woolf 2019, p. 40–41
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  17. ^ Woolf 2019, pp. 68–69, 84
  18. ^
  19. ^ Woolf 2019, pp. 84
  20. ^
    • Woolf 2019, pp. 89, 124
    • Breisach 2005, § The Age of Anthropocentric Historiography
    • Jensen, § 2. Humanism through Renaissance
  21. ^
  22. ^
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  24. ^ Woolf 2019, pp. 5, 106–114
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  27. ^
  28. ^
  29. ^ Woolf 2019, pp. 5–6, 196–197, 215–216
  30. ^
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  32. ^
  33. ^ Woolf 2019, pp. 262–264, 268–269
  34. ^
  35. ^ Woolf 2019, pp. 239–240, 242–243
  36. ^

Sources

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  • Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). "Historiography". A Dictionary of World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280700-7.
  • Breisach, Ernst (2005). "Historiography: An Overview". In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd ed.). Macmillan Reference. ISBN 0028659813.
  • Moore, R. I. (2006). "38. World History". In Bentley, Michael (ed.). Companion to Historiography. Routledge. pp. 918–936. ISBN 978-1-134-97023-0.
  • Lefkowitz, Mary (2008). "Historiography and Myth". In Tucker, Aviezer (ed.). A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 353–361. ISBN 978-1-4443-0491-6.
  • Morgan, David (2006). "1. The Evolution of Two Asian Historiographical Traditions". In Bentley, Michael (ed.). Companion to Historiography. Routledge. pp. 9–19. ISBN 978-1-134-97023-0.
  • Bayly, C. A. (2006). "26. Modern Indian Historiography". In Bentley, Michael (ed.). Companion to Historiography. Routledge. pp. 663–677. ISBN 978-1-134-97023-0.
  • Comber, Michael (2006). "3. Re-reading the Roman Historians". In Bentley, Michael (ed.). Companion to Historiography. Routledge. pp. 38–52. ISBN 978-1-134-97023-0.
  • Fagan, Brian M.; Durrani, Nadia (2019). World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-77280-1.
  • Quinn, Sholeh A. (2020). Persian Historiography across Empires: The Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-90170-3.
  • Mittag, Achim (2012). "1. Chinese Official Historical Writing under the Ming and Qing". In Rabasa, José; Sato, Masayuki; Tortarolo, Edoardo; Woolf, Daniel (eds.). The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400-1800. Oxford University Press. pp. 24–42. ISBN 978-0-19-162944-0.
  • Ng, On-cho (2012). Rabasa, José; Sato, Masayuki; Tortarolo, Edoardo; Woolf, Daniel (eds.). The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 3: 1400-1800. Oxford University Press. pp. 60–79. ISBN 978-0-19-162944-0.
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