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Frederickena was named in honour of British explorer Frederick Vavasour McConnell. In 1918, Frederickena was first scientifically described by British ornithologist Charles Chubb[2]. Earlier, in 1916, Chubb and McConnell had published a book entitled The Birds of British Guiana, based on McConnell’s specimen collection. Each species has its own morphology, unique vocalisations, and mitochondrial DNA sequences. Professional biologists employ genetic analysis to distinguish them into different species.
Modern ornithological classifications increasingly rely on molecular phylogenetics to resolve genus-level relationships. It is the sequencing of the cytochrome b gene and other mitochondrial markers in its species that has confirmed the genus’s unique characteristics within the Thamnophilidae (antbird) family.[3]At the same time, it also confirmed that antbirds diverged from other closely related genera earlier than previously assumed.
1868: Frederickena unduligera was identified as a new species based on specimens from western Amazonia.
1905: Frederickena viridis (Black-throated Antshrike) was described as a distinct species from the Guiana Shield (southeast Venezuela and northern Brazil).
1918: The genus Frederickena was formally erected by Chubb under Thamnophilidae.
1944: F. unduligera was divided into three subspecies: F. u. unduliger, F. u. diversa, and F. u. pallida.
2010: Frederickena fulva (Fulvous Antshrike) was elevated to species rank following SACC Proposal No. 431.[4]
Recent field observations and acoustic data have further supported the taxonomic separation of F. fulva, especially due to its divergent vocal repertoire and subtle plumage distinctions, suggesting evolutionary pressures related to habitat fragmentation and regional acoustics.[5]
Frederickena is a genus of large, dark-coloured antbirds. Adult birds range from 22 to 25 cm (8.7 to 9.8 in) in length and 75 to 85 g (2.6 to 3.0 oz) in weight. F. viridis, the Black-throated Antshrike, is slightly smaller, measuring 19 to 22 cm (7.5 to 8.7 in) and weighing 65 to 75 g (2.3 to 2.6 oz). Because of their restricted ranges and elusive behaviour, data remain limited.
Birds of this genus exhibit strong sexual dimorphism. All species feature a crest in both sexes, irises ranging from brown to yellowish, a thick black bill with a hooked tip reminiscent of burrower birds, and black legs and feet.
Their body parts have undergone long-term evolution and are now highly adapted to their environment. The structure of their beaks and feet facilitates foraging among dense undergrowth or low-lying detritus. Their strong, slightly curved claws greatly assist in gripping stems or vines, allowing them to maintain stability while hunting.[6]
Black-throated antshrike males are fully covered in dull black, while females may have a distinctly shrugged reddish-brown skullcap. Some females may also have reddish-brown feathers on their backs. Often their belly and underparts are distinctly striped. A fierce expression and a larger bill are also some of their characteristics.[7]The fulvous antshrike is a large dark antbird.The bars on the face and crest are broken and appear as small spots.
Undulated antshrike males are greyish-white in colour all over, with fine black streaks on closer inspection. Females are mostly yellowish-brown in colour with fine black stripes all over. Their crowns sometimes stand up, sometimes flat. Larger in size than most other antshrikes and antbirds in their range.[8]
The male of the Fulvous antshrike is black all over with fine white stripes. Females are brownish-yellow all over with tiny black horizontal stripes; the stripes on their tails are white. Both sexes have crowns, but they are usually laid flat. The plumage is much like that of the Undulated antshrike, but the females have more elaborate markings. They prefer to lurk in pairs in the understory of dense forests, perhaps because of self-defence and a shy disposition.
Juvenile plumage is poorly documented but is believed to resemble that of adult females in pattern, though with duller colours. This may function as camouflage and reduce aggressive responses from territorial adults.[9]
The genus Frederickena comprises three large antbirds species inhabiting tropical rainforests of northern and western Amazonia. They all live concentrated in the forest regions of South America.
The tropical rainforest where branches and vines interweave is a space where Frederickena enjoys to move around and hunt.The Black-throated Antshrike (F. viridis) ranges across eastern Bolívar (Venezuela), eastern Guyana and northern Brazil, from the lower Rio Negro east to coastal Amapá, north of the Amazon River.
The Undulated Antshrike (F. unduligera) occurs in western Amazonia, with its nominate subspecies in the upper Rio Negro basin; F. u. diversa spans eastern Peru (south of the Amazon and Marañón), reaching the Rio Juruá in Brazil and northern Bolivia; F. u. pallida is found between the Rio Purus and Rio Madeira, possibly extending into northern Bolivia.
The Fulvous Antshrike (F. fulva) inhabits the far western Amazon, including southern Colombia, eastern Ecuador, and northern Peru, possibly reaching the Ucayali and Cushabatay Rivers. Records in Ecuador’s northeast are sparse, and it remains rarely observed throughout its range.
Frederickena antshrikes typically inhabit evergreen forests, appearing singly or in pairs, each species showing distinct habitat preferences. The Black-throated Antshrike, endemic to the Guiana Shield, favors sandy or firm soils and often stays near natural treefall gaps. The Undulated Antshrike prefers vine-dense forests, forest openings, and river edges, occurring up to 1100 m elevation. The elusive Fulvous Antshrike hides in dense tangles and is found up to 700 m, reaching 1100 m in parts of Peru. Some species follow army-ant swarms, making them occasionally visible along river corridors or in insect-rich forest clearings.[10]Mature, dense rainforests provide ideal habitats for antbirds of the genus Frederickena, while the presence of these birds also indicates the ecological maturity of the rainforest.
Frederickena species rely on intact rainforest habitats, which leaves them particularly threatened by forest clearance. They rarely occur in secondary growth or cultivated areas; however, occasional reports from areas undergoing selective logging indicate they possess a certain capacity to adapt. Research indicates their sensitivity to environmental changes could allow them to serve as indicators for assessing forest health.
Frederickena species are considered sedentary, with no evidence of seasonal migration. This is based on observational records from various ornithological platforms.
During breeding periods, individuals may move within their territories, likely seeking nesting resources or improved feeding sites. Typically, flock membership remains consistent throughout the year, although adults might slightly enlarge their usual range in response to reduced food availability during dry spells.[11]
The diet of the Black-throated Antshrike is not fully defined, but it includes large insects and arthropods such as beetles, ants, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and spiders. They forage mainly within 2 meters of the ground, often leaping through dense foliage and vines, and sometimes follow army ant swarms to catch fleeing prey.[12]As primarily insectivorous birds, they help regulate arthropod populations, particularly among ground-dwelling insects.
The diets of the Undulated Antshrike and the Fulvous Antshrike are unclear but likely similar to other birds in the Frederickena genus. The Undulated Antshrikes forage up to 3 meters high, moving through branches or on the ground, often flicking their tails sideways and joining mixed-species foraging flocks.
Through meticulous observations by ornithologists, it has been discovered that antbirds typically fly around in the mid to lower layers of forests, similar to songbirds. Occasionally, they also feed on small insects, and even lizards or frogs. Nevertheless, this feeding behavior is infrequent and irregularly documented. Their distinctive tail-flicking and sideways hopping movements may serve both as defensive strategies against predators and as hunting methods to flush prey out from dense vegetation.[13]
The specific breeding period of species in genus Frederickena has no clear range. It could only be relied upon as a reference for specific studies.
The picture shows a Frederickena viridis specimen. fully covered in dull black, while females may have a distinctly shrugged reddish-brown skullcap.The Black-throated Antshrike breeds from about October to March. A typical nest in Suriname, low in the bush, is shaped like a basket suspended from the fork of a tree branch. It contains two cream-coloured eggs with purple spots.Nothing is known about their incubation period, the timing of feather development, or their parental behavior. Elsewhere, the breeding season of the black-throated antshrike is also unknown.
There is only one example of a study on breeding season of the Undulated Antshrike to refer to as well. In Peru, it nests around October and November. The researchers observed three nests. The nests were shaped like woven cups. Each nest contained two eggs, white with purple markings. Both parents incubated the eggs during the day and the female alone at night. Both parents provided food for the chicks. The incubation period, time of nest departure, and other details of parental care are unknown.[14]
Although nests appear structurally alike, the uniform clutch size of two eggs throughout the genus could indicate a common evolutionary adaptation in antbirds.The breeding season of the Fulvous Antshrike is also currently only available as an example of one study. In eastern Ecuador, there is an open cup-shaped structure of a nest, consisting mainly of root whiskers and finer fibres. It hangs from a tree branch 1.6 metres above the ground. Inside are two pale white eggs with cinnamon and purple markings. Both parents incubate the eggs during the day and the female alone at night. One of them hatched at the end of June and the chick was born without fluff. Other details are unknown.These nest structures are very similar to those of related antbird species. This indicates structural consistency throughout evolution.[15]
The genus Frederickena also belongs to the antbird family, so there are many similarities in terms of nest construction structure, nest location, egg production, and egg patterns. The scarcity of information regarding chick growth and the extent of parental care highlights the importance of conducting additional long-term research on breeding behavior.
The typical duration of the black-throated ant-shrike's song is 6-7 seconds. The vocalisation is characterised by a slow, sustained, whistling sound, like that of the black nun bird, peeeeur, with a specific repetitive rhythm.[16]
The undulated antshrike's song consists of a series of whistles that gradually increase in pitch from a low pitch. The articulation is characterised by 8-13 connected wuiw pitches, long (1 second), Tcheerrrrl , short, harsh, sometimes shrill, repeated in short series.[17]
The fulvous antshrike is very good at hiding itself and is usually detected on the basis of its sound. Its vocalisations are characterised by 10 loud tones, whistles, a continuous uue, a descending screech, peeeeeeeh, or a repetitive chee, a screech like a falling bomb.[18]
Recent observations from field studies indicate that call variations exist among populations divided by large rivers. These acoustic differences are important for identification purposes and might signal early stages of speciation or acquired vocal patterns within geographically isolated populations.Even closely related groups may produce distinct calls that differ in pitch, rhythm, or tonal quality, potentially shaped by environmental pressures or social learning. Such vocal divergence suggests that isolation by physical barriers like rivers plays a role not only in limiting gene flow but also in shaping behavioural traits relevant to communication and recognition.[19]
The vocal characteristics of Frederickena species are marked by notable geographic variation, particularly among populations separated by major river systems in the Amazon basin. These groups exhibit distinct call types, with variations in pitch, rhythm, and duration, which are critical for field identification. These differences may reflect local adaptations or learned behaviours passed through generations within isolated communities. The divergence in vocalisations also suggests potential reproductive isolation, supporting the hypothesis of incipient speciation. As vocal communication is central to mate recognition and territory defence, these patterns may indicate early evolutionary divergence and offer valuable insight into the mechanisms driving biodiversity within the genus.[19]
All recognized species within the genus Frederickena are currently assessed as Least Concern (LC) by the International Union for the Conservation, reflecting their relatively low extinction risk. However, population across the genus are difficult to estimate due to their character and often fragmented distributions. No direct threats to the species have been identified. However, it is speculated that numbers of black-throated ant-shrike are declining. Most of the time, the species is found in at least two protected areas in Venezuela. There is a complete range of habitats suitable for their survival.[20]
The IUCN evaluated Undulated antshrike and Fulvous antshrike together according to the HBW classification. It is assessed as Least Concern (LC) rating in lower risk. Numbers are difficult to determine due to their wide distribution. Although no direct threat has been identified, it is speculated that their numbers are diminishing.
Undulated antshrike is a rare species within its range, and it may be found in several large game reserves. It is also sometimes considered an indicator of high quality forests, as these areas are usually less disturbed by the outside world.
Fulvous antshrike is an uncommon species in Colombia and Ecuador, and even rare in Peru. They are mostly found in mature forest areas. It is speculated that this species may be affected by habitat destruction and some other human activities.
In recent years, habitat loss has become a concern for many experts, particularly in the western Amazon basin, mainly caused by mining and agricultural activities. Although no formal studies have specifically targeted Frederickena populations, observational data from bird-monitoring websites indicate localized declines, especially around fragmented forest edges. Recommendations for conservation involve enlarging protected regions, promoting local ecological studies, and incorporating Frederickena monitoring into larger biodiversity assessments across Amazonia. Citizen science initiatives such as iNaturalist and eBird could significantly aid efforts to document the distribution and vocal differences among these understudied birds.
^Bravo, Gustavo A.; Remsen, J. V.; Whitney, Bret M.; Brumfield, Robb T. (2012). "DNA sequence data reveal a subfamily-level divergence within Thamnophilidae (Aves: Passeriformes)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 65(1): 287–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2012.06.016
^von Pelzeln, August (1868). Zur Ornithologie Brasiliens : Resultate von Johann Natterers Reisen in den Jahren 1817 bis 1835 (in German and Latin). Vol. 2. Wien: A. Pichler's Witwe & Sohn. p. 139.
^Fitzpatrick, J. W. (1985). Form, foraging behavior, and adaptive radiation in the Tyrannidae.Ornithological Monographs, 36, 447–470.
^Skutch, A. F.; Gardner, D. (1996). "The Young & Their Care". In Antbirds and Ovenbirds: Their Lives and Homes (pp. 75–86). University of Texas Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7560/776999.12
^Brumfield, R. T.; Tello, J. G.; Cheviron, Z. A.; Carling, M. D.; Crochet, N.; Rosenberg, K. V. (2007). "Phylogenetic conservatism and antiquity of a tropical specialization: Army-ant-following in the typical antbirds (Thamnophilidae)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 45(1): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2007.07.019
^Skutch (1977) provides detailed life history observations of antbirds, including their foraging strategies and adaptations.<ref>Skutch, A. F. (1977). "Life History Studies of Antbirds (Formicariidae)." Ornithological Monographs, 27, p.59. https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/om/om055.pdf#page=59
^Skutch, A. F.; Gardner, D. (1996). "The Young & Their Care". In Antbirds and Ovenbirds: Their Lives and Homes (pp. 15-30). University of Texas Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7560/776999.12
^Sánchez‐Martínez, M. A.; Londoño, G. A. (2016). "Nesting behavior of male and female Undulated Antshrikes (Frederickena unduliger)". Journal of Field Ornithology. 87(1): 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1111/jofo.12137
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