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Ingila kasa ce da ke cikin tarayyar kasar Ingila.[1][2] Tana da iyaka da ƙasar Wales zuwa yamma da kasar Scotland a arewacinta.[3][4][5] Tekun Irish yana arewa maso yamma da yankin Tekun Celtic na Tekun Atlantika zuwa kudu maso,yamma.[6][7][8] An raba shi daga nahiyar Turai ta Tekun Arewa zuwa gabas da English Channel zuwa kudu.[9][10][11] Ƙasar ta ƙunshi kashi biyar cikin takwas na tsibirin Biritaniya, wanda ke arewacin Tekun Atlantika, kuma ya haɗa da ƙananan tsibirai sama da 100, kamar tsibirin Scilly da tsibirin Wight.[12][13][14]

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Yankin da ake kira Ingila da farko mutane na zamani ne suka fara zama a lokacin Upper Paleolithic,[15][16][17] amma ya ɗauki sunansa daga Angles, ƙabilar Jamusanci da taasamo sunanta daga yankin Anglia, wanda ya zauna a cikin ƙarni na 5th da 6th. Ingila ta zama kasa mai haɗin kai a cikin karni na 10 kuma tana da tasiri mai mahimmanci na al'adu da shari'a a duniya tun lokacin Age of Discovery, wanda ya fara a cikin karni na 15.[18][19][20] Harshen Ingilishi, Cocin Anglican, da Dokokin Ingilishi — tushen tsarin dokokin gama gari na wasu ƙasashe da yawa a duniya—an bunƙasa a Ingila, kuma tsarin mulkin majalisar dokokin ƙasar ya sami karbuwa sosai daga wasu ƙasashe.[21][22][23] Juyin juya halin masana'antu ya fara ne a cikin ƙarni na 18 na Ingila, yana mai da al'ummarsa zuwa ƙasa ta farko mai ci gaban masana'antu a duniya.[24][25][26]

Ƙasar Ingila na da karancin tsaunuka da filayen ƙasa ne, musamman a tsakiya da kudancin Ingila. Koyaya, akwai tudu da tsaunuka a arewa (misali, gundumar Lake da Pennines ) da kuma a yamma (misali, Dartmoor da Shropshire Hills ). Babban birnin kasar shine London,[27][28][29] wanda ke da yanki mafi girma a cikin Burtaniya. Yawan jama'ar Ingila sun kai miliyan 56.3  kuma daga ciki sun ƙunshi kashi 84% na yawan jama'ar Burtaniya,[30][31][32] sun fi mayar da hankali sosai a kusa da London, Kudu maso Gabas, da gundumomi a cikin Midlands, Arewa maso Yamma, Arewa maso Gabas, da Yorkshire, waɗanda kowannensu ya haɓaka a matsayin manyan yankuna na masana'antu a lokacin Karni na 19.[33][34][35]

Uk

Masarautar Ingila - wacce bayan 1535 ta hada da Wales - ta daina zama wata kasa ta daban a ranar 1 ga watan Mayu 1707, lokacin da Ayyukan Tarayyar Turai suka aiwatar da sharuddan da aka amince da su a cikin Yarjejeniyar Tarayyar a shekarar da ta gabata, wanda ya haifar da kawancen siyasa tare da Masarautar Scotland don ƙirƙirar Mulkin Biritaniya.[36][37][38] A cikin 1801, Biritaniya ta haɗe da Masarautar Ireland (ta hanyar wata Dokar Tarayyar) ta zama Burtaniya ta Burtaniya da Ireland. A cikin shekarar 1922 Ƙasar 'Yanci ta Irish ta balle daga Ƙasar Ingila, wanda ya kai ga canza sunan na biyu zuwa Ƙasar Burtaniya ta Burtaniya da Arewacin Ireland.[39][40][41]

Asali

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Sunan "Ingila" ya samo asali ne daga Tsohon Turanci sunan Englaland , wanda ke nufin " Land of the Angles ".[42][43][44] Angles na ɗaya daga cikin ƙabilun Jamusawa waɗanda suka zauna a Biritaniya a lokacin Early Middle Ages.[45][46][47] Angles sun fito ne daga yankin Anglia a yankin Bay of Kiel (jahar Schleswig-Holstein ta Jamus a yanzu) na Tekun Baltic.[48][49][50] Farkon amfani da kalmar, kamar yadda " Engla londe ", yana cikin fassarar ƙarshen ƙarni na tara zuwa Tsohon Turanci na Bede 's History Ecclesiastical History of the English People.[51][52][53] Daga nan sai aka yi amfani da kalmar ta wata ma’ana ta dabam da ta zamani, ma’ana “ƙasar da turawan Ingila ke zaune”, kuma ta haɗa da mutanen Ingilishi a yankin da ke kudu maso gabashin Scotland a yanzu amma a lokacin yana cikin masarautar Ingila ta Northumbria.[54][55][56] Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ya rubuta cewa Littafin Domesday na shekarar 1086 ya hade dukan Ingila, ma'ana mulkin Ingila, amma bayan 'yan shekaru bayan Tarihi ya bayyana cewa Sarki Malcolm III ya fita "daga Scotlande zuwa Lothian a Ingila", don haka amfani da shi.[57][58][59]

Maganar farko da aka tabbatar game da Angles tana faruwa a cikin aikin ƙarni na 1 na Tacitus, Jamusanci, wanda kalmar Latin Anglii ana amfani da shi.[60][61][62] Ma’anar asalin sunan kabila ita kanta malamai sun yi sabani da shi; an ba da shawarar cewa ya samo asali ne daga siffar tsibirin Angeln, siffar angular.[63][64][65] Ta yaya kuma me ya sa aka samu kalmar da aka samo daga sunan ƙabilar da ba ta da ma'ana fiye da sauran, irin su Saxon, don amfani da ƙasar gaba ɗaya kuma ba a san mutanenta ba,[66][67][68] amma ga alama wannan yana da alaƙa da al'adar (custom of calling the Germanic people in Britain Angli Saxones) ko Ingilishi Saxon don bambanta su da Saxons na nahiyar (Eald-Seaxe) na Old Saxony tsakanin kogin Weser da Eider a Arewacin Jamus.[69][70][71] A cikin Scottish Gaelic, wani harshe wanda ya haɓaka a tsibirin Burtaniya, kabilar Saxon ta ba da sunan su ga kalmar Ingila ( Sasunn.[72][73][74]); haka ma, sunan Welsh na harshen Ingilishi shine " Saesneg ". Sunan soyayya ga Ingila shine Loegria, wanda ke da alaƙa da kalmar Welsh don Ingila, Lloegr , kuma ya shahara ta amfani da shi a cikin almara Arthurian . Hakanan ana amfani da Albion ga Ingila,[75][76][77] ko da yake ainihin ma'anarsa ita ce tsibirin Biritaniya gaba ɗaya.[78][79][80]

Tarihi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Fara tarihin

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Shaidar farko da aka sani na kasancewar ɗan adam a yankin da aka fi sani da Ingila yanzu ita ce ta Homo magabata, tun kimanin shekaru 780,000 da suka wuce.[81][82][83] Mafi dadewar kasusuwan da aka gano a Ingila sun kasance tun shekaru 500,000 da suka gabata.[84][85][86] An san mutane na zamani sun zauna a yankin a lokacin Upper Paleolithic, kodayake an kafa matsugunan dindindin a cikin shekaru 6,000 da suka gabata.[87][88][89] Bayan zamanin ƙanƙara na ƙarshe kawai manyan dabbobi masu shayarwa irin su mammoths, bison da ulun karkanda suka rage.[90][91] Kusan shekaru 11,000 da suka wuce, lokacin da dusar ƙanƙara ta fara ja da baya, mutane sun sake mamaye yankin; binciken kwayoyin halitta ya nuna cewa sun fito ne daga arewacin yankin Iberian Peninsula.[92][93][94] Matsayin teku ya yi ƙasa da na yanzu kuma an haɗa Biritaniya ta gadar ƙasa zuwa Ireland da Eurasia.[95][96][97] Yayin da tekuna ke tashi, an raba shi da Ireland shekaru 10,000 da suka wuce kuma daga Eurasia bayan shekaru biyu.[98][99][100]

Al'adun Beaker ya zo a kusan 2,500 BC, yana gabatar da sha da tasoshin abinci da aka gina daga yumbu, da kuma tasoshin da aka yi amfani da su azaman rage tukwane don narkar da tagulla.[101][102][103] A wannan lokacin ne aka gina manyan abubuwan tarihi na Neolithic kamar Stonehenge (phase III) da Avebury. Ta hanyar dumama gwangwani da tagulla, waɗanda ke da yawa a yankin, al'adun Beaker mutane sun yi tagulla, daga baya kuma baƙin ƙarfe daga ƙarfe.[104][105][106] Haɓaka narkewar baƙin ƙarfe ya ba da damar gina ingantattun gonaki, haɓaka aikin gona (misali, tare da filayen Celtic), da kuma samar da ingantattun makamai.[107][108][109]

A lokacin Iron Age, al'adun Celtic, wanda ya samo asali daga al'adun Hallstatt da La Tène, sun zo daga tsakiyar Turai. Brythonic shine yaren magana a wannan lokacin. Al'umma ta kasance kabilanci;[110][111][112] A cewar Ptolemy's Geographia akwai kusan kabilu 20 a yankin. Kamar sauran yankuna a gefen daular, Biritaniya ta daɗe tana jin daɗin haɗin gwiwar kasuwanci da Romawa.[113][114][115] Julius Kaisar na Jamhuriyar Roma ya yi ƙoƙari ya mamaye sau biyu a cikin 55 BC; ko da yake bai yi nasara ba, ya yi nasarar kafa wani sarki abokin ciniki daga Trini antes.[116][117][118]

Tsohon tarihi

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Romawa sun mamaye Biritaniya a shekara ta 43 miladiyya a zamanin sarki Claudius,[119][120][121] daga baya kuma suka mamaye yawancin Biritaniya, kuma yankin ya shiga cikin daular Roma a matsayin lardin Britaniya.[122][123][124] Mafi sanannun ƙabilu na asali waɗanda suka yi ƙoƙarin yin tsayayya su ne Catuvellauni wanda Caratacus ya jagoranta.[125][126][127] Daga baya, boren da Boudica, Sarauniyar Iceni ta jagoranta, ya ƙare da kisan kai da Boudica ya yi bayan shan kaye a yakin Watling.[128][129][130] Marubucin wani bincike na Roman Biritaniya ya nuna cewa daga 43 AD zuwa 84 AD,[131][132][133] mahara na Romawa sun kashe a wani wuri tsakanin mutane 100,000 zuwa 250,000 daga al'umma mai kila 2,000,000.[134][135][136] Wannan zamanin ya ga al'adun Greco-Romawa sun yi galaba tare da gabatar da dokar Romawa,[137][138][139] gine-ginen Romawa, magudanar ruwa, magudanar ruwa, yawancin kayan noma da siliki.[140][141][142] A cikin karni na 3, Sarkin sarakuna Septimius Severus ya mutu a Eboracum (yanzu York), inda daga baya aka yi shelar Constantine a matsayin sarki bayan karni daya.[143][144][145]

Akwai muhawara game da lokacin da aka fara gabatar da Kiristanci; bai wuce karni na 4 ba, tabbas da yawa a baya. A cewar Bede,[146][147][148] Eleutherius ne ya aiko da masu wa’azi daga Roma bisa roƙon sarki Lucius na Biritaniya a shekara ta 180 miladiyya,[149][150][151] domin su sasanta bambance-bambancen da suka shafi bukukuwan Gabas da Yamma, waɗanda ke damun Ikilisiya. Akwai hadisai da ke da alaƙa da Glastonbury suna da'awar gabatarwa ta hanyar Yusufu na Arimathea, yayin da wasu ke da'awar ta hanyar Lucius na Biritaniya.[152][153][154] A shekara ta 410, a lokacin daular Rumawa ta koma baya,[155][156][157] Birtaniya ta kasance cikin fallasa a karshen mulkin Romawa a Biritaniya da kuma janyewar rundunan sojojin Romawa, don kare iyakokin nahiyar Turai da kuma shiga yakin basasa.[158][159][160] Ƙungiyoyin addinin Kirista na Celtic da ƙungiyoyin mishan sun bunƙasa. Wannan zamanin na Kiristanci ya sami tasiri ga tsohuwar al'adun Celtic a cikin hankali, tsarin mulki, ayyuka da tiyoloji.[161][162][163] “Ikilisiyoyi” na gida sun kasance a tsakiya a cikin al’ummar zuhudu kuma shugabannin zuhudu sun fi zama kamar sarakuna, a matsayin takwarorina,[164][165] maimakon a cikin tsarin mafi girman tsarin cocin da Romawa ke mamayewa.[166][167][168]

Tsakanin Zamani

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Janyewar sojojin Roman ya bar Birtaniyya a bude ga mamayar maguzawa,[169][170][171] mayaka masu ruwa da tsaki daga arewa maso yammacin nahiyar Turai, musamman Saxon, Angles,[172][173][174][174] Jutes da Frisians wadanda suka dade suna kai farmaki ga gabar tekun lardin Romawa. Daga nan sai wadannan kungiyoyi suka fara daidaitawa da yawa a cikin karni na biyar da na shida, tun daga farko a gabashin kasar.[175][176][177]

Mulki

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Siyasa

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Ingila wani bangare ne na Burtaniya, tsarin mulkin tsarin mulki tare da tsarin majalisa.[178][179][180] Ba a sami gwamnatin Ingila ba tun 1707, lokacin da Ayyukan Tarayyar 1707,[181][182][183] da ke aiwatar da sharuddan Yarjejeniyar Tarayyar, sun shiga Ingila da Scotland don kafa Masarautar Burtaniya.[184][185][186] Kafin tarayyar Ingila ta kasance karkashin masarautarta da majalisar dokokin Ingila.[187][188][189]

Hotunan ginin hasken ruwa na rectangular, wanda aka nuna a cikin ruwa. Ginin yana da hasumiyai da yawa ciki har da ɗaya a kowane ƙarshen.[190][191][192][192] Hasumiyar da ke hannun dama ta haɗa da fuskar agogo mai haske.[193][194][195]

Majalisar dokokin Burtaniya ce ke tafiyar da mulkin Ingila kai tsaye, duk da cewa wasu kasashen Burtaniya sun mika mulki.[196][197][198] An yi muhawara kan yadda za a daidaita wannan a Ingila. Da farko an shirya cewa za a raba yankuna daban-daban na Ingila,[199][200][201] amma sakamakon kin amincewa da shawarar da Arewa maso Gabas ta yi a zaben raba gardama na 2004, ba a aiwatar da hakan ba.[1][202][203] A cikin 2024, an kafa wata ƙungiya ta gwamnatin Ingila kaɗai, wacce aka sani da Majalisar Magajin Gari ta Ingila, don haɗa ministoci daga Gwamnatin Burtaniya, Magajin Garin Landan da shugabannin hukumomin haɗin gwiwa.[204][205][206]

A cikin House of Commons wanda shi ne ƙananan majalisar dokokin Birtaniya da ke a fadar Westminster, akwai 'yan majalisa 543 (MPs) na mazabu a Ingila, daga cikin 650.[207][208][209] Ingila dai tana da wakilai 347 daga jam'iyyar Labour, 116 daga jam'iyyar Conservative, 65 daga jam'iyyar Liberal Democrats, 5 na Reform UK sai hudu na Green Party na Ingila da Wales.[210][211][212]

Doka

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Tsarin doka na Ingilishi, wanda aka haɓaka tsawon ƙarni, shine tushen dokar gama gari[213][213][214] da ake amfani da su a yawancin ƙasashen Commonwealth[215][216][217] da Amurka (sai dai Louisiana). Duk da kasancewarsa na Burtaniya a halin yanzu, tsarin shari'a na kotunan Ingila da Wales ya ci gaba, a karkashin yarjejeniyar Tarayyar, a matsayin tsarin shari'a daban da wanda ake amfani da shi a Scotland.[218][219][220] Babban jigon dokar Ingilishi shi ne, alkalan da ke zaune a kotuna ne suka yi ta, suna yin amfani da hankali da sanin ilimin shari’a – stare decisis – ga hujjojin da ke gabansu.[221]

Babban kotunan Ingila da Wales ne ke jagorantar tsarin kotun, wanda ya kunshi kotun daukaka kara, da babbar kotun shari'a kan shari'o'in farar hula, da kotun kararrakin laifuka[222]. Kotun kolin Burtaniya ita ce babbar kotun da ke shari'ar laifuka da farar hula a Ingila da Wales. An ƙirƙira shi a cikin 2009 bayan sauye-sauyen tsarin mulki, tare da ɗaukar ayyukan shari'a na Majalisar Ubangiji. Hukuncin Kotun Koli yana da nauyi a kan kowace kotun da ke cikin manyan mukamai, wanda dole ne ta bi umarninta[223]

Sakataren shari’a na kasa shi ne ministan da ke da alhakin shari’a, tsarin kotu da gidajen yari da gwaji a Ingila.[224] Laifukan sun karu tsakanin 1981 zuwa 1995 amma ya ragu da kashi 42% a cikin 1995-2006.[99] Yawan fursunonin sun ninka a lokaci guda, wanda ya ba shi ɗayan mafi girman adadin fursuna a Yammacin Turai a 147 a cikin 100,000.[225] Ma'aikatar Kurkuku ta Mai Martaba, tana ba da rahoto ga Ma'aikatar Shari'a, tana kula da yawancin gidajen yari, tana da fursunoni 81,309 a Ingila da Wales har zuwa Satumba 2022.[226]

Rarraba na Ingila sun ƙunshi matakai har huɗu na ƙungiyoyin ƙasa da ƙasa, waɗanda aka sarrafa ta nau'ikan ƙungiyoyin gudanarwa da aka ƙirƙira don dalilai na ƙaramar hukuma.[227]

A wajen yankin London, matakin mafi girma na Ingila shine gundumomi 48 na bikin.[228] Ana amfani da waɗannan da farko azaman ƙirar yanki. Daga cikin waɗannan, 38 sun haɓaka a hankali tun tsakiyar zamanai; An sake gyara su zuwa 51 a 1974 zuwa adadinsu na yanzu a 1996.[229] Kowannensu yana da Lieutenant da Babban Sheriff; Ana amfani da waɗannan mukamai don wakiltar masarautar Burtaniya a cikin gida. Wasu larduna, irin su Herefordshire, an raba su ne kawai zuwa wuraren farar hula. Yankin sarauta na Berkshire da gundumomin birni suna da matsayi daban-daban ga sauran gundumomin bikin.[230]

Hotuna

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  • Sun shining through row of upright standing stones with other stones horizontally on the top.
    Stonehenge, abin tunawa na Neolithic
  • Duban ginshiƙan ginin tudun Maiden Castle, Dorset, kamar yadda suke kallo a yau
    Duban ginshiƙan ginin tudun Maiden Castle, Dorset, kamar yadda suke kallo a yau

Manazarta

[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Ripley 1869, p. 570
  2. ↑ Office for National Statistics (United Kingdom). "The Countries of the UK". statistics.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 20 December 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
  3. ↑ Molyneaux 2015, pp. 6–7
  4. ↑ Germania". Tacitus. Archived from the original on 16 September 2008. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
  5. ↑ Angle". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 5 September 2009.[dead link]
  6. ↑ Crystal 2004, pp. 26–27
  7. ↑ Forbes, John (1848). The Principles of Gaelic Grammar. Edinburgh: Oliver, Boyd and Tweeddale
  8. ↑ Foster 1988, p. 9.
  9. ↑ 500,000 BC – Boxgrove". Current Archaeology. Current Publishing. 24 May 2007. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
  10. ↑ Palaeolithic Archaeology Teaching Resource Box" (PDF). Palaeolithic Rivers of South-West Britain Project (2006). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 20 December 2010.; "Chalk east". A Geo East Project. Archived from the original on 5 March 2011. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
  11. ↑ Oppenheimer 2006, p. 173.
  12. ↑ "Tertiary Rivers: Tectonic and structural background". University of Cambridge. Retrieved 9 September 2009.
  13. ↑ Oppenheimer 2006, p. 173
  14. ↑ "Tertiary Rivers: Tectonic and structural background". University of Cambridge. Retrieved 9 September 2009.
  15. ↑ Reid, Struan (1994). Inventions and Trade. P.8. James Lorimer & Company. ISBN 978-0-921921-30-1. Retrieved 23 December 2010
  16. ↑ Function and significance of Bell Beaker pottery according to data from residue analyses". Retrieved 21 December 2010
  17. ↑ Burke, Jason (2 December 2000). "Dig uncovers Boudicca's brutal streak". The Observer. London. Archived from the original on 22 October 2003. Retrieved 5 September 2009.
  18. ↑ "England – Culture". britainusa.com. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
  19. ↑ Cornelius Tacitus, The Annals". Alfred John Church, William Jackson Brudribh, Ed. Retrieved 22 December 2010.
  20. ↑ Goldsworthy, Adrian (2016). Pax Romana: War, Peace and Conquest in the Roman World. Hachette UK. p. 276.
  21. ↑ "Country profile: United Kingdom". BBC News. news.bbc.co.uk. 26 October 2009. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
  22. ↑ Bedoyere, Guy. "Architecture in Roman Britain". Heritage Key. Archived from the original on 3 July 2009. Retrieved 23 December 2010.; Philip, Robert (1860). The History of Progress in Great Britain. Vol. 2. Retrieved 23 December 2010.; Rees, Bob; Shute, Paul; Kelly, Nigel (2003). Medicine through time. Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-435-30841-4. Retrieved
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  24. ↑ "Industrial Revolution". Ace.mmu.ac.uk. Archived from the original on 27 April 2008. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
  25. ↑ Wright 2008, p. 143
  26. ↑ James, Edward. "Overview: Anglo-Saxons, 410 to 800". BBC. Retrieved 3 December 2010.
  27. ↑ Lehane, Brendan (1968). Early Christian Christianity. John Murray.
  28. ↑ Dark, Ken R. (2003). "Large-scale population movements into and from Britain south of Hadrian's Wall in the fourth to sixth centuries AD" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 June 2021. Retrieved 20 June 2020.; Martin, Toby F. (2015). The Cruciform Brooch and Anglo-Saxon England. Boydell and Brewer Press. pp. 174–178.; Coates, Richard. "Celtic whispers: revisiting the problems of the relation between Brittonic and Old English".; Kortlandt, Frederik (2018). "Relative Chronology" (PDF).; Fox, Bethany. "The P-Celtic Place Names of North-East England and South-East Scotland".
  29. ↑ Härke, Heinrich (2011). "Anglo-Saxon Immigration and Ethnogenesis". Medieval Archaeology. 55 (1): 1–28. doi:10.1179/174581711X13103897378311. ISSN 0076-6097. S2CID 162331501.
  30. ↑ Kirby 2000, p. 4.
  31. ↑ Park, Neil (24 June 2020). "Population estimates for UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland". www.ons.gov.uk. Office for National Statistics (United Kingdom).
  32. ↑ Kirby 2000, p. 4.
  33. ↑ 2011 Census – Population and household estimates for England and Wales, March 2011. Accessed 31 May 2013.
  34. ↑ Lyon 1960, p. 23.
  35. ↑ Overview: The Normans, 1066–1154". BBC. Retrieved 3 December 2010.
  36. ↑ Burns, William E. A Brief History of Great Britain. p. xxi.; "Acts of Union 1707". parliament.uk. Retrieved 27 January 2011.
  37. ↑ Norman invasion word impact study". BBC News. 20 February 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2010.
  38. ↑ Crouch 2006, pp. 2–4
  39. ↑ Phelan, Kate (4 October 2016). "The Partition Of Ireland: A Short History". Culture Trip. Archived from the original on 27 August 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2019.
  40. ↑ Bartlett 1999, p. 124
  41. ↑ Edward I (r. 1272–1307)". Royal.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 24 June 2008. Retrieved 21 September 2009.
  42. ↑ "England". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 21 July 2010.
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