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Maroons

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Maroons

Maroons zuriyar ’yan Afirka ne a cikin Amurka da tsibiran Tekun Indiya waɗanda suka tsere daga bauta, ta hanyar jirgin sama ko kuma tashe-tashen hankula, suka kafa nasu ƙauyuka. Sau da yawa sukan haɗu da ƴan asali, daga ƙarshe suna rikiɗewa zuwa al'adu daban-daban kamar Garifuna da Mascogos.[1]

Maroons sun yi mamakin ƙarnuka (1893) (Brussels) na Louis Samain.

Asalin kalmar

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Maroon ya shiga cikin harshen Turanci a kusa da 1590s, daga marron sifa na Faransa, ma'ana 'feral' ko 'mai gudun hijira', ita kanta maiyuwa daga kalmar Spanish cimarrón, ma'ana 'daji, marar ɗa'a' ko 'bawan da ya gudu'. [2] [3] A farkon shekarun 1570, Sir Francis Drake ya kai hari kan Espaniya a Panama ta hanyar "Symerons", mai yiwuwa kuskuren rubuta cimarrón. Masanin ilimin harshe Leo Spitzer, a rubuce a cikin mujallar Harshe, ya ce, "Idan akwai dangantaka tsakanin Eng. Maroon, Fr. marron, da Sp. cimarrón, Spain (ko Mutanen Espanya Amurka) mai yiwuwa ya ba da kalmar kai tsaye ga Ingila (ko Ingilishi Amurka)." [4]

A madadin haka, masanin ilimin kimiyya na Cuban José Juan Arrom ya gano asalin kalmar maroon fiye da Cimarron Espanya, wanda aka yi amfani da shi a farko a cikin Hispaniola don komawa ga dabbobin daji, sa'an nan kuma ga bayin Indiya waɗanda suka tsere zuwa tsaunuka, kuma a farkon shekara ta 1530s ga bayin Afirka waɗanda suka yi haka.[5][6][3] Ya ba da shawarar cewa kalmar Spanish ta Amurka ta samo asali daga asalin kalmar Arawakan simarabo, wanda aka fassara a matsayin 'mai gudun hijira', a cikin yaren Arawakan da mutanen Taíno 'yan asalin tsibirin ke magana. [7] [8] [9] [10]

Tarihi

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Zamanin Mulkin Mallaka

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A Sabuwar Duniya, tun farkon 1512, bayi 'yan Afirka sun gudu daga hannun masu kama su na Spain kuma ko dai sun shiga tare da 'yan asalin ƙasa ko kuma suka ci gashin kansu.[11] Lokacin da bayi 'yan gudun hijira da Amerindians suka haɗu suka rayu da kansu, ana kiran su "Maroons". A tsibiran Caribbean, sun kafa ƙungiyoyi kuma a wasu tsibiran, sansanoni masu ɗauke da makamai.[12]

Ƙungiyoyin Maroon na farko a Amurka sun kafu a wani yanki da yanzu ake kira Jamhuriyar Dominika, bayan tawayen bayi na farko a ranar 26 ga Disamba 1522, a gonakin sukari na Admiral Diego Columbus.[13]:35 Al'ummar Maroon ta yau da kullun a farkon matakai galibi ta ƙunshi nau'ikan mutane uku:[14]

  • Mafi yawansu bayi ne da suka gudu kai tsaye bayan sun sauko daga jiragen ruwa. Sun ƙi miƙa 'yancinsu kuma galibi suna ƙoƙarin nemo hanyoyin komawa Afirka.[14]
  • Rukunin na biyu bayi ne da suka yi aiki a gonaki na ɗan lokaci. Waɗannan bayin galibi sun daidaita da tsarin bautar amma masu gonaki sun yi musu duka – sau da yawa da yawan tashin hankali. Wasu sun gudu lokacin da aka sayar da su ba zato ba tsammani ga sabon mai shi.[14]
  • Rukunin ƙarshe na Maroons galibi bayi ne masu fasaha tare da ƙaƙƙarfan adawa ga tsarin bautar.[14]

Al'ummomin Maroon sun fuskanci ƙalubale masu yawa na rayuwarsu daga hare-haren mazauna masu adawa, samun abinci don rayuwa mai cin gashin kai, da kuma haifuwa da ƙara yawan su.[12][15] Yayin da masu shuka suka mallaki ƙarin filaye don amfanin gona, Maroons sun fara rasa wuri a ƙananan tsibiran. Sai dai a wasu manyan tsibiran ne ƙungiyoyin Maroon da aka tsara suka sami damar bunƙasa ta hanyar shuka amfanin gona da farauta. A nan ne suka ƙaru yayin da ƙarin bayi suka gudu daga gonaki suka shiga ƙungiyoyinsu. Da yake neman rabu da masu mulkin mallaka, Maroons sun sami ƙarfi a cikin ƙara yawan rikice-rikice. Sun kai hari tare da lalata gonaki da kuma addabar masu shuka har sai masu shuka suka fara tsoron babban tawayen bayi baƙar fata.[16]

Zuwa 1700, yawancin ƙungiyoyin Maroon na farko sun ɓace ko kuma an kore su daga ƙananan tsibiran. Rayuwa koyaushe tana da wahala, saboda Maroons dole ne su yaƙi mahara da kuma shuka abinci.[16]

Dangantaka da Hukumomin Mulkin Mallaka

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Marronage (guduwa) ya kasance babban barazana ga tsarin bautar na Sabuwar Duniya. Hukuncin da ake yi wa Maroons da aka sake kama su ya kasance mai tsanani, kamar cire jijiyar Achilles, yanke ƙafa, yanke azzakari, da kuma gasa mutum har ya mutu.[17] Dole ne ƙungiyoyin Maroon su kasance marasa isa kuma suna cikin wuraren da ba su dace ba don su iya ci gaba. Misali, an kafa ƙungiyoyin Maroon a cikin wuraren dausayi masu nisa a kudancin Amurka; a cikin kwazazzabai masu zurfi tare da ramukan ruwa amma da ƙarancin ruwa ko ƙasa mai noma a Jamaica; da kuma a cikin dazuzzukan Guianas masu zurfi.[17] Ƙungiyoyin Maroon sun yi amfani da tsananin muhallinsu don ɓoyewa da kare al'ummominsu. Hanyoyin boye, hanyoyin karya, tarkunan tarko, hanyoyin karkashin ruwa, dausayi da yashi mai nutsuwa, da yanayin halitta duk an yi amfani da su don ɓoye ƙauyukan Maroon.[17]

Maroons a Suriname a ƙarni na 19

Maroons sun yi amfani da dabarun yaƙin 'yan daba na musamman don yaƙar abokan gaba na Turai. Nanny, shahararriyar Jamaican Maroon, ta yi amfani da dabarun yaƙin 'yan daba waɗanda har yanzu sojoji da yawa a duniya ke amfani da su a yau.[17] Ko da yake gwamnatocin mulkin mallaka suna cikin yanayi na rikici na dindindin tare da ƙungiyoyin Maroon, mutane a cikin tsarin mulkin mallaka sun yi musu ciniki da kayayyaki da ayyuka.[17] Maroons kuma sun yi ciniki tare da keɓaɓɓun mazauna farar fata da al'ummomin 'yan asalin Amurka. Ƙungiyoyin Maroon sun yi amfani da ƙungiyoyi masu sha'awa a kan juna.[17] A lokaci guda, an kuma yi amfani da ƙungiyoyin Maroon a matsayin 'yan tsana lokacin da iko na mulkin mallaka suka yi karo.[17] Sirrin gaskiya da aminci na membobi sun kasance masu mahimmanci ga rayuwar ƙungiyoyin Maroon. Don tabbatar da wannan aminci, ƙungiyoyin Maroon sun yi amfani da matsanancin matakan don karewa daga tserewa da leƙen asiri. An kawo sabbin membobi zuwa al'ummomi ta hanyar karkata hanya don kada su iya gano hanyarsu ta komawa kuma sun yi hidima na lokutan gwaji, sau da yawa a matsayin bayi. Laifuka kamar tserewa da zina ana hukunta su da mutuwa.[17]

1801 hoton wani harin Maroon a gonar Dromilly, Jamaica, yayin Yaƙin Maroon na Biyu na 1795–1796.

Yaƙe-yaƙe na Maroon

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Ƙungiyoyin Maroon sun fito a wurare da yawa a cikin Caribbean (St Vincent da Dominika, misali), amma babu wani da aka gani a matsayin babban barazana ga Birtaniya kamar Jamaican Maroons.[18] Fara a ƙarshen ƙarni na 17, Jamaican Maroons sun ci gaba da yaƙar masu mulkin mallaka na Birtaniya, wanda ya kai ga Yaƙin Maroon na Farko (1728–1740). A cikin 1739 da 1740, gwamnan Birtaniya na Mallakar Jamaica, Edward Trelawny, ya sanya hannu kan yarjejeniyoyin da ke ba da alkawarin Jamaican Maroons kadada 2500 a wurare biyu, a Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town) a yammacin Jamaica da Crawford's Town a gabashin Jamaica, don kawo ƙarshen yaƙin tsakanin al'ummomi. A musayar, za su yarda su kama sauran bayi da suka gudu. An fara biyan su lada dala biyu ga kowane ɗan Afirka da aka dawo da shi.[19][20]:31–46 Yarjejeniyoyin sun 'yanta Maroons ƙarni ɗaya kafin Dokar Kawar da Bauta ta 1833, wadda ta fara aiki a 1838.

Yaƙin Maroon na Biyu na 1795–1796 rikici ne na tsawon watanni takwas tsakanin Maroons na Cudjoe's Town (Trelawny Town), wani yanki na Maroon wanda daga baya aka sake masa suna bayan Gwamna Edward Trelawny a ƙarshen Yaƙin Maroon na Farko, wanda ke kusa da Trelawny Parish, Jamaica a cikin St James Parish, da kuma masu mulkin mallaka na Birtaniya waɗanda ke kula da tsibirin. Al'ummomin Windward na Jamaican Maroons sun kasance masu tsaka-tsaki a lokacin wannan tawayen kuma yarjejeniyarsu da Birtaniya har yanzu tana aiki. Accompong Town, duk da haka, ta haɗa kai da sojojin mulkin mallaka, kuma ta yi yaƙi da Trelawny Town.[21]

Zamanin Zamani

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Mutumin Ndyuka yana kawo gawar yaro gaban likitan gargajiya. Suriname, 1955

Ragowar ƙungiyoyin Maroon a tsohuwar Caribbean ta Spain sun ci gaba da wanzuwa tun daga 2006, misali a Viñales, Cuba,[22] da Adjuntas, Puerto Rico.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Har wa yau, Jamaican Maroons sun kasance masu cin gashin kansu sosai kuma sun rabu da al'ummar Jamaica. Keɓancewar jiki da kakanninsu suka yi amfani da ita a yau ta sa al'ummominsu suka kasance daga cikin waɗanda ba za a iya kai musu hari ba a tsibirin. A cikin babban garinsu, Accompong, a cikin yankin St Elizabeth, Leeward Maroons har yanzu suna da al'umma mai rayuwa ta kusan 600. Ana bayar da rangadi na ƙauyen ga baƙi kuma ana shirya babban biki kowane 6 ga Janairu don tunawa da rattaba hannu kan yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya da Birtaniya bayan Yaƙin Maroon na Farko.[23][24]

Yarjejeniyar Ndyuka ta kasance mai mahimmanci ga dangantaka tsakanin Ndyuka da gwamnatin Suriname ta zamani, saboda tana ayyana haƙƙin yankin Maroons a cikin yankunan zinariya masu arziƙi na Suriname.[25][26][27]

Matsugunin Baƙar Fata da Baƙar Fata suka Jagoranta a cikin Amurka

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Yayin da ake yawan danganta al'ummomin maroon da Caribbean, an kafa da yawa daga cikinsu ta hanyar Afirka daga takamaiman kabilu[28]. Garin Accompong na Jamaica, wanda mayakan Akan suka kafa a shekara ta 1739, ya adana al'adun Ashanti kamar 'Rawa ta Kromanti'[29]. Irin waɗannan al'ummomin a Suriname (misali, Saramaka) an kafa su ne ta hanyar jarumai daga Masarautar Dahomey (Benin ta zamani). Nazarin DNA na baya-bayan nan ya tabbatar da cewa kashi 89% na maroons na Surinamese suna da dangantaka ta kai tsaye da mutanen Akan na Ghana.[30]

Al'adu

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Tutar Maroon a Freetown, Saliyo
Kauyen Maroon, Kogin Suriname, 1955

Akwai bambanci sosai tsakanin rukunin al'adun Maroon saboda bambance-bambance a tarihi, yanki, ƙasar Afirka, da kuma al'adun ƴan asalin ƙasar a duk faɗin Yammacin Duniya. Bayi da yawa sun tsere a cikin tsarar farko na isowarsu daga Afirka kuma galibi sun adana harsunansu na Afirka da yawancin al'adunsu da addininsu na gargajiya na Afirka. Al'adun Afirka sun haɗa da abubuwa kamar amfani da wasu ganyaye na magani tare da ganguna na musamman da rawa lokacin da ake ba wa mai rashin lafiya ganyen. Sauran al'adun warkarwa na Afirka da al'adu sun rayu tsawon ƙarnuka.

Dajin da ke kewayen Tekun Caribbean ya ba da abinci, matsuguni, da keɓewa ga bayi da suka tsere. Maroons sun tallafa wa kansu ta hanyar noman kayan lambu da farauta. Rayuwarsu ta dogara ne ga al'adunsu, da kuma iyawarsu ta soja, ta amfani da dabarun yaƙin guerrilla da matsuguni masu ƙarfi waɗanda suka haɗa da tarko da karkatarwa. Wasu sun bayyana barin al'ummar a matsayin guduwa don haka za a iya hukunta su da mutuwa.[14] Sun kuma fara kai hari ga gonaki. A lokacin waɗannan hare-hare, Maroons za su ƙone amfanin gona, su saci dabbobi da kayan aiki, su kashe masu bayi, kuma su gayyaci sauran bayi su shiga al'ummominsu. Rukunin Maroons ɗaiɗaiku galibi suna haɗa kai da ƙabilun ƴan asalin ƙasar kuma lokaci-lokaci suna haɗuwa cikin waɗannan yawan. Maroons sun taka muhimmiyar rawa a cikin tarihin Brazil, Suriname, Puerto Rico, Haiti, Jamhuriyar Dominican, Cuba, da Jamaica.

Matsugunin Maroon galibi suna da al'adar ƙabila, al'adar baƙi. Wani lokaci suna haɓaka harsunan Creole ta hanyar haɗa harsunan Turai tare da harsunansu na asali na Afirka. Ɗaya daga cikin irin wannan harshen Creole na Maroon, a Suriname, shine Saramaccan. A wasu lokuta, Maroons za su ɗauki bambance-bambancen harshen Turai na gida (creolization) a matsayin yaren gama gari, domin membobin al'ummar sukan yi magana da harsunan asali daban-daban.[14]

Maroon sun ƙirƙiro nasu al'ummomi masu zaman kansu, waɗanda a wasu lokuta sun rayu tsawon ƙarnuka, kuma har zuwa kwanan nan sun kasance dabam daga babban al'umma. A cikin ƙarni na 19 da 20, al'ummomin Maroon sun fara ɓacewa yayin da aka lalata dazuzzuka, kodayake wasu ƙasashe, kamar Guyana da Suriname, har yanzu suna da manyan al'ummomin Maroon da ke zaune a cikin dazuzzuka. Kwanan nan, da yawa daga cikinsu sun koma birane da garuruwa yayin da tsarin birane ke sauri.

Rarraba Yanayi

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Afirka

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Mauritius

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A ƙarƙashin gwamna Adriaan van der Stel a shekara ta 1642, farkon mazaunan Holland na Kamfanin Dutch East India Company sun kawo bayi 105 daga Madagascar da sassan Asiya don yin aiki a Dutch Mauritius. Duk da haka, 50 daga cikin waɗannan bayi na farko, ciki har da mata, sun tsere zuwa daji na Dutch Mauritius. An kama 18 ne kawai daga cikin waɗannan waɗanda suka tsere. A ranar 18 ga Yuni 1695, wata ƙungiya ta Maroons 'yan asalin Indonesiya da China, ciki har da Aaron d'Amboine, Antoni (Bamboes) da Paul de Batavia, da kuma mata da suka tsere Anna du Bengale da Espérance, sun sa wuta a Fort Frederick Hendryk (Vieux Grand Port) na mazaunan Holland a yunƙurin karɓar ikon tsibirin. An kama su duka kuma an fille musu kai.[31] A watan Fabrairun 1706 an sake shirya wani tawaye ta sauran Maroons da kuma bayi marasa gamsuwa. Lokacin da Hollandawa suka bar Dutch Mauritius a 1710, Maroons sun zauna a baya.[Ana bukatan hujja]

Lokacin da wakilan Kamfanin Faransanci na Louis XIV suka sauka a tsibirin a 1715, su ma dole ne su fuskanci hare-hare daga Mauritian Maroons. Muhimman abubuwan sun kasance harin 1724 a kan wani sansanin soja a gundumar Savannah, da kuma harin da aka kai wa barikin soja a 1732 a Poste de Flacq. Mutane da yawa sun mutu sakamakon irin waɗannan hare-hare. Ba da daɗewa ba bayan isowarsa a 1735, Mahé de La Bourdonnais ya tattara kuma ya ba da kayan aiki ga rukunin sojojin Faransa da suka haɗa da farar hula da sojoji don yaƙar Maroons. A 1739, an kama jagoran Maroon Sans Souci kusa da Flacq kuma mazaunan Faransa sun ƙone shi da rai. ƴan shekaru baya, wata ƙungiya ta mazaunan Faransa ta bi Barbe Blanche, wani jagoran Maroon, amma sun rasa sawunsa a Le Morne. Sauran Maroons sun haɗa da Diamamouve da Madame Françoise.[32][33]

Réunion

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Maroons mafi muhimmanci a Réunion sun kasance Cimendef, Cotte, Dimitile da Maffate.[34]

Saliyo

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Main article: Jamaican Maroons in Sierra Leone

Wata ƙungiya ta ƴan ƙasa da 600 Jamaican Maroons daga Garin Cudjoe (Garin Trelawny), mafi girma daga cikin garuruwan Jamaican maroon guda biyar, an kore su daga hukumomin Burtaniya a Jamaica bayan Yaƙin Maroon na Biyu a 1796, na farko zuwa Nova Scotia.[35] Shekaru huɗu bayan haka a 1800, an kai su Saliyo.[36][37][38]

Kamfanin Saliyo ya kafa matsugunin Freetown da Colony na Saliyo a 1792 don sake tsugunar da Amirkawa Baƙar fata waɗanda suka isa ta Nova Scotia bayan an kwashe su a matsayin 'yantattu daga Amurka bayan Yaƙin Juyin Juya Halin Amurka.[39][40] Wasu Jamaican Maroons daga ƙarshe sun koma Jamaica, amma yawancinsu sun zama wani ɓangare na manyan mutanen Creole na Saliyo da al'adun da suka haɗa da 'yantattu da bayi da aka 'yanta waɗanda suka shiga su a cikin rabin ƙarni na farko na mulkin mallaka.[41][42][43]

Arewacin Amurka

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Kanada

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Nova Scotia
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A cikin shekarun 1790, kimanin 600 na Jamaican Maroons an kai su yankunan Biritaniya a Nova Scotia, inda kuma aka sake tsugunar da bayi 'yan Amurka da suka tsere daga Amurka. Ganin cewa ba su ji daɗin yanayin ba, a shekara ta 1800, mafi yawansu sun yi hijira zuwa Freetown, Yammacin Afirka inda suka bayyana kansu a matsayin 'yan asalin Saliyo.[44]

Karibiyan

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Cuba
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A Cuba, akwai al'ummomin Maroon a cikin tsaunuka, inda 'yan gudun hijira na Afirka suka tsere daga zaluncin bauta kuma suka shiga Taínos.[45] A shekara ta 1538, 'yan gudun hijira sun taimaki Faransawa su kori birnin Havana.[13]:41

A shekara ta 1731, bayi sun tashi a tawaye a ma'adinan Cobre, kuma suka kafa al'umma mai zaman kanta a Sierra del Cobre, wadda ta wanzu ba tare da an takura mata ba har zuwa shekara ta 1781, lokacin da yawan mutanen da suka 'yanta kansu ya karu zuwa sama da 1,000. A shekara ta 1781, hukumomin mulkin mallaka na Spain sun amince su amince da 'yancin mutanen wannan al'umma.[13]:41[46]:54–55 A shekara ta 1797, ɗaya daga cikin shugabannin da aka kama na wani palenque kusa da Jaruco ɗan Indiya ne daga Yucatán.[46]:57

A cikin shekarun 1810, Ventura Sanchez, wanda aka fi sani da Coba, shi ne ke kula da wani palenque na ɗaruruwan Maroons a cikin tsaunuka ba da nisa da Santiago de Cuba ba. An yaudari Sanchez ya tafi Santiago de Cuba, inda ya kashe kansa maimakon a kama shi a mayar da shi bauta. Jagorancin palenque daga nan ya wuce zuwa Manuel Grinan, wanda aka fi sani da Gallo.[13]:42–43

Palenque na Bumba ya kasance yana da tsari sosai har ma sun aika Maroons a cikin ƙananan jiragen ruwa zuwa Jamaica da Santo Domingo don yin kasuwanci. A shekara ta 1830, hukumomin mulkin mallaka na Spain sun gudanar da balaguro na soja a kan palenques na Bumba da Maluala. Antonio de Leon daga ƙarshe ya yi nasarar lalata palenque na Bumba.[46]:55

A cikin shekarun 1830, palenques na al'ummomin Maroon sun bunƙasa a yammacin Cuba, musamman yankunan da ke kewaye da San Diego de Nunez. Ofishin Kamawar Maroons ya ruwaito cewa tsakanin 1797 zuwa 1846, akwai dubban 'yan gudun hijira da ke zaune a cikin waɗannan palenques. Duk da haka, tsaunuka na gabas sun kasance suna da palenques masu ɗorewa, musamman na Moa da Maluala, inda Maroons suka bunƙasa har zuwa Yaƙin Farko na 'Yanci a 1868, lokacin da yawancin Maroons suka shiga Sojojin 'Yancin Cuba.[13]:47–48[46]:51

Akwai wuraren tarihi 28 da aka gano a cikin kwarin Viñales masu alaƙa da bayi na Afirka da suka tsere ko Maroons na farkon ƙarni na 19; ana samun shaidar kayan aiki na kasancewarsu a cikin kogo na yankin, inda ƙungiyoyi suka zauna na tsawon lokaci daban-daban. Al'adar baka ta nuna cewa Maroons sun fake a kan gangaren mogotes da kuma a cikin kogo; Gidan Tarihi na Municipal na Viñales yana da nune-nunen kayan tarihi da ke nuna rayuwar bayi da suka tsere, kamar yadda aka gano ta hanyar binciken tarihi. Al'adun gargajiya da aka sake yi a lokacin Semana de la Cultura (Mako na Al'adu) suna murnar kafa garin a 1607.[47][48]

Dominica, Saint Lucia, da Saint Vincent
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Irin waɗannan al'ummomin Maroon sun haɓaka a tsibirai a duk faɗin Caribbean, kamar na mutanen Garifuna a Saint Vincent. Yawancin Garifuna an kore su zuwa babban yankin Amurka, inda wasu daga ƙarshe suka zauna a bakin tekun Mosquito ko a Belize. Daga wurin saukar su na asali a tsibirin Roatan da ke bakin tekun Honduras, Maroons sun koma Trujillo. A hankali ƙungiyoyi sun yi ƙaura zuwa kudu zuwa Masarautar Miskito kuma arewa zuwa Belize.[49] A Dominica, bayi da suka tsere sun haɗa kai da ƴan asalin Kalinago a cikin daji mai yawa na tsibirin don ƙirƙirar al'ummomin Maroon, waɗanda ke ci gaba da rikici da hukumomin mulkin mallaka na Burtaniya a duk lokacin bautar gargajiya.[50]

A cikin mulkin mallaka na Faransa na Saint Lucia, Maroons da sojoji masu gudun hijira na Sojojin Juyin Juya Halin Faransa sun kafa abin da ake kira Armée Française dans les bois (sojojin Faransa a cikin dazuzzuka), wanda ya ƙunshi kimanin maza 6,000 waɗanda suka yi yaƙin Brigand na Farko a kan Birtaniya waɗanda kwanan nan suka mamaye tsibirin.[51] Karkashin jagorancin Kwamishinan Faransa, Gaspard Goyrand,[52] sun yi nasarar sake karɓar ikon yawancin tsibirin daga Birtaniya, amma a ranar 26 ga Mayu 1796, sojojinsu da ke kare sansanin a Morne Fortune, kimanin maza 2,000 sun mika wuya ga wani rukuni na Birtaniya karkashin jagorancin Janar John Moore.[53][54] Bayan mika wuya, sama da fursunonin yaƙi na Faransa da Afro-Caribbean 2,500 da kuma mata da yara casa'in da tara, an kai su daga St. Lucia zuwa Portchester Castle. Daga ƙarshe an aika su zuwa Faransa a musayar fursunoni; wasu sun zauna a Turai yayin da wasu suka koma Faransa.[55][56]

Jamhuriyar Dominican
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Farkon marronage a Amurka ya fara ne a yankin Spain da ke tsibirin Hispaniola. Gwamna Nicolás de Ovando ya riga ya fara korafin bayi da suka tsere da kuma mu'amalarsu da 'yan asalin Taíno tun daga shekara ta 1503. Tawayen bayi na farko ya faru a Hispaniola a gonakin sukari mallakar Admiral Diego Columbus, a ranar 26 ga Disamba 1522, kuma Admiral ya murƙushe shi da ƙarfi.[13]:35 Ko da yake Admiral ya murƙushe tawayen, yawancin bayi sun sami damar tserewa. Maroons na Dominican sun ci gaba da jagorantar ayyukan Maroon na farko a Amurka. Sebastián Lemba, wanda aka haifa a Afirka, ya yi nasarar tawaye ga Sipaniyawa a shekara ta 1532, kuma ya haɗa kai da sauran 'yan Afirka a cikin gwagwarmayarsa ta shekaru 15 a kan mazaunan Spain. Daga ƙarshe Lemba ya haɗa kai da sauran Maroons kamar Juan Vaquero, Diego del Guzmán, Fernando Montoro, Juan Criollo da Diego del Ocampo a cikin gwagwarmaya da bauta. Yayin da Maroons suka fara barazana ga kasuwancin Spain, jami'an Spain sun fara jin tsoron karɓe ikon tsibirin daga Maroons.[57]

Maroons sun haɗa kai da 'yan asalin ƙasar a cikin yaƙe-yaƙensu da Sipaniyawa kuma sun ɓoye tare da shugaban 'yan tawaye Enriquillo a cikin tsaunukan Bahoruco.[58][59][13]:38 Har zuwa shekarun 1540s, Maroons sun riga sun mallaki sassan ciki na tsibirin, kodayake yankuna a gabas, arewa, da yammacin tsibirin suma sun faɗa ƙarƙashin ikon Maroon. Ƙungiyoyin Maroon za su yi ƙoƙarin fita a cikin tsibirin, yawanci a manyan ƙungiyoyi, suna kai hari ga ƙauyuka da suka haɗu da su, suna ƙone gonaki, suna kashe da kwashe Sipaniyawa, da 'yantar da bayi. Hanyoyin sun zama masu buɗewa ga hari, Sipaniyawa sun ga ya zama dole su yi tafiya a cikin ƙungiyoyi kawai.[57] Lokacin da Archdeacon Alonso de Castro ya zagaya Hispaniola a 1542, ya kiyasta yawan al'ummar Maroon ya kai mutane 2,000–3,000.[58][59][13]:38

Haiti
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]

Faransawa sun fuskanci nau'o'i daban-daban na juriya ta bayi a cikin ƙarnuka na 17 da 18, a Saint-Domingue, wanda daga baya aka kira Haiti. Tsoffin bayi na Afirka da suka gudu zuwa yankunan tsaunuka masu nisa ana kiran su marron (Faransanci) ko mawon (Creole na Haiti), ma'ana 'bawan da ya tsere'. Maroons sun kafa ƙungiyoyi masu haɗin kai waɗanda suka yi aikin noma da farauta a ƙaramin sikelin. An san su da komawa gonaki don 'yantar da 'yan uwa da abokai. Sau da yawa, sun kuma haɗa kai da mazaunan Taíno, waɗanda suka tsere daga Sipaniyawa a cikin ƙarni na 17.[60]:135–136

A ƙarshen ƙarni na 17 da farkon ƙarni na 18, akwai adadi mai yawa na Maroons da ke zaune a cikin tsaunukan Bahoruco. A 1702, wani balaguro na Faransawa a kan su ya kashe Maroons uku kuma ya kama 11, amma sama da 30 sun guje wa kamawa, kuma sun koma cikin dazuzzukan tsaunuka inda ba za a iya samun su ba. An sake yin balaguro a kan su da ƙananan nasara, ko da yake sun yi nasarar kama ɗaya daga cikin shugabanninsu, Michel, a 1719. A balaguro na gaba, a 1728 da 1733, sojojin Faransa sun kama Maroons 46 da 32 bi da bi. Komai yawan rukunonin da aka aika a kan waɗannan Maroons, sun ci gaba da jan hankalin 'yan gudun hijira. Balaguro a 1740, 1742, 1746, 1757 da 1761 sun sami ƙananan nasarori a kan waɗannan Maroons, amma sun kasa lalata wuraren ɓoyewarsu.[60]:135–136

A cikin 1776–1777, wani balaguro na haɗin gwiwa na Faransa da Spain ya shiga yankunan kan iyaka na tsaunukan Bahoruco, da niyyar lalata matsugunan Maroon a can. Duk da haka, an sanar da Maroons game da zuwansu, kuma sun bar ƙauyukansu da kogoninsu, suna komawa cikin dazuzzukan tsaunuka inda ba za a iya samun su ba. Daga ƙarshe rukunin sun dawo, ba su yi nasara ba kuma sun rasa sojoji da yawa saboda rashin lafiya da guduwa. A cikin shekarun da suka biyo baya, Maroons sun kai hari ga yawancin matsuguni, ciki har da Fond-Parisien, don abinci, makamai, gunpowder da mata. A ɗaya daga cikin waɗannan balaguron ne aka kama ɗaya daga cikin shugabannin Maroon, Kebinda, wanda aka haifa cikin 'yanci a cikin tsaunuka. Daga baya ya mutu a tsare.[60]:136–138

A cikin 1782, de Saint-Larry ya yanke shawarar ba da sharuɗɗan zaman lafiya ga ɗaya daga cikin shugabannin Maroon, Santiago, inda zai ba su 'yanci a madadin su farautar duk waɗanda suka tsere kuma su mayar da su ga masu su. A ƙarshe, a ƙarshen 1785, an amince da sharuɗɗa, kuma Maroons sama da 100 a ƙarƙashin umurnin Santiago sun daina yin kutse a yankin mulkin mallaka na Faransa.[60]:139–142

Sauran ƙoƙarin juriya na bayi a kan tsarin shuka na Faransawa sun fi kai tsaye. Ɗaya daga cikin Maroons masu tasiri shine François Mackandal, wani houngan ko firist na voodoo, wanda ya jagoranci tawaye na shekaru shida a kan fararen masu shuka a Haiti wanda ya riga Yaƙin Juyin Juya Halin Haiti.[61] Mackandal ya jagoranci wani motsi don sanya guba a cikin ruwan sha na masu shuka a cikin shekarun 1750.[62] Boukman ya ayyana yaƙi a kan fararen masu shuka na Faransawa a 1791, wanda ya haifar da Yaƙin Juyin Juya Halin Haiti. Wani mutum-mutumi mai suna Le Nègre Marron ko Nèg Mawon wani shahararren gunkin tagulla ne da aka gina a tsakiyar Port-au-Prince don tunawa da rawar da Maroons suka taka a 'yancin kai na Haiti.[63]

  1. ↑ Diouf, Sylviane A. (2016). Slavery's Exiles: The Story of the American Maroons. New York: NYU. pp. 81, 171–177, 215, 309. ISBN 978-0-8147-2449-1. OCLC 864551110.
  2. ↑ "Maroon definition and meaning". Collins Dictionary (in Turanci). Retrieved 16 December 2019.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Empty citation (help) Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; name "Campbell2000" defined multiple times with different content
  4. ↑ Spitzer, Leo (1938). "Spanish cimarrón". Language. Linguistic Society of America". 14 (2): 145–147. doi:10.2307/408879. JSTOR 408879. The Shorter Oxford Dictionary explains maroon 'fugitive negro slave' as from 'Fr. marron, said to be a corruption of Sp. cimarrón, wild, untamed'. But Eng. maroon is attested earlier (1666) than Fr. marron 'fugitive slave' (1701, in Furetière). If there is a connection between Eng. maroon, Fr. marron, and Sp. cimarrón, Spain (or Spanish America) probably gave the word directly to England (or English America).
  5. ↑ Samfuri:Cite OED
  6. ↑ "Maroon definition and meaning". Collins Dictionary (in Turanci). Retrieved 16 December 2019.
  7. ↑ Arrom, José Juan (1983). "Cimarrón: Apuntes sobre sus primeras documentaciones y su probable origen" [Cimarrón: Notes on its first documentation and probable origin]. Revista Española de Antropología Americana (in Sifaniyanci). Madrid: Universidad Complutense. XII: 10. Script error: The function "langx" does not exist. English: And if we pay attention to the testimony of Oviedo when, after having lived in Hispaniola for many years, he asserts that cimarrón "means, in the language of this island, fugitives", it would be demonstrated that we are, in fact, before an early loan of the Taíno language.
  8. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  9. ↑ Empty citation (help)
  10. ↑ Tardieu, Jean-Pierre (2006). "Cimarrôn–Maroon–Marron, note épistémologique" [Cimarrôn–Maroon–Marron, epistemological note]. Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire (in Faransanci). 93 (350): 237–247. doi:10.3406/outre.2006.4201.
  11. ↑ Drake, Frances (1909–1914). Voyages and Travels: Ancient and Modern. The Harvard Classics. para. 21 – via Bartleby Great Books Online.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Dinnerstein, Leonard; Jackson, Kenneth T., eds. (1975). American Vistas: 1607–1877 (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 64.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 Franco, José (1996). "Maroons and Slave Rebellions in the Spanish Territories". In Price, Richard (ed.). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 Price, Richard (1973). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Garden City, New York: Anchor Press. p. 25. ISBN 0-385-06508-6. OCLC 805137.
  15. ↑ Ohadike, Don C. (1 January 2002). Pan-African Culture of Resistance: A History of Liberation Struggles in Africa and the Diaspora. Global Publications, Binghamton University. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-58684-175-1.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Rogozinski, Jan (1999). A Brief History of the Caribbean (revised ed.). New York: Facts on File Inc. pp. 155–168. ISBN 0-8160-3811-2 – via Internet Archive.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 Price, Richard (1979). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 1–30. ISBN 0-8018-2247-5.
  18. ↑ Edwards, Bryan (1801). Historical Survey of the Island of Saint Domingo. London: J. Stockdale.
  19. ↑ Taylor, Alan (2001). American Colonies: The Settling of North America. New York: Penguin Books.
  20. ↑ Siva, Michael (2018). After the Treaties: A Social, Economic and Demographic History of Maroon Society in Jamaica, 1739-1842 (PDF) (PhD). Southampton, England: Southampton University.
  21. ↑ Mavis Campbell, The Maroons of Jamaica (Massachusetts: Bergin & Garvey, 1988), pp. 209–49.
  22. ↑ Sartorio, Blanchie (13 March 2004). "El Templo de los Cimarrónes" [Haikalin Maroons]. Guerrillero: Pinar del Río (in Sifaniyanci). Archived from the original on 8 May 2008.
  23. ↑ Campbell, Mavis Christine (1988). The Maroons of Jamaica, 1655–1796: A History of Resistance, Collaboration & Betrayal. Granby, Massachusetts: Bergin & Garvey. ISBN 0-89789-148-1..
  24. ↑ Edwards, Bryan (1801) [1796]. "Observations on the disposition, character, manners, and habits of life, of the Maroons of the island of Jamaica; and a detail of the origin, progress, and termination of the late war between those people and the white inhabitants". Historical Survey of the Island of Saint Domingo. London: J. Stockdale. pp. 303–360.
  25. ↑ van Stipriaan, Alex (1995). Surinaams Contrast. Roofbouw en Overleven in een Caraïbische Plantagekolonie, 1750–1863 [Bambancin Suriname. Fashi da Rayuwa a cikin Mallaka ta Shuka ta Caribbean, 1750–1863] (in Holanci). Leiden, Netherlands: KITLV Uitgeverij. ISBN 90-6718-052-1.
  26. ↑ Buddingh', Hans (2012). Geschiedenis van Suriname [Tarihin Suriname] (in Holanci). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Nieuw Amsterdam. ISBN 978-90-468-1172-6.
  27. ↑ van Stipriaan, Alex; Polimé, Thomas, eds. (2009). Kunst van Overleven. Marroncultuur uit Suriname [Fasahar Rayuwa. Al'adun Maroon daga Suriname] (in Holanci). Amsterdam, Netherlands: KIT Publishers. ISBN 978-94-6022-040-1.
  28. ↑ "Google books".
  29. ↑ "UNESCO Slave Route Project".
  30. ↑ "African Origins of Suriname Maroons (Journal Study)".
  31. ↑ Carter, Marina; Ng Foong Kwong, James (2009). Abacus and Mah Jong: Sino-Mauritian Settlement and Economic Consolidation. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. p. 21. ISBN 978-90-04-17572-3.
  32. ↑ Peerthum, Satyendra. "Histoires du marronage: Les combattants de la liberté" [Marronage Stories: The Freedom Fighters] (in Faransanci). Defimedia. Retrieved 24 February 2019.
  33. ↑ "Histoire du marronage" [History of Maroonage] (in Faransanci). Histoires Mauriciennes. 6 February 2018. Retrieved 6 February 2018.
  34. ↑ Hintjens, Helen (2003). "From French Slaves to French Citizens: The African Diaspora in Réunion Island". In Jayasuriya, Shihan de S.; Pankhurst, Richard (eds.). The African Diaspora in the Indian Ocean. Trenton, New Jersey: Africa World Press Inc. p. 99. ISBN 0-86543-980-X.
  35. ↑ Hamilton, James Cleland (1890). The African in Canada ; The Maroons of Jamaica and Nova Scotia [microform]. Canadiana.org. [S.l. : s.n. ISBN 978-0-665-05348-1.
  36. ↑ Taylor, Bankole Kamara (2014). Sierra Leone: The Land, Its People and History (in Turanci). New Africa Pres. ISBN 978-9987-16-038-9.
  37. ↑ Grant, John N (2002). The Maroons in Nova Scotia (Softcover). Formac. p. 203. ISBN 978-0887805691.
  38. ↑ James Walker, The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone 1783-1870 (London: Longman, 1976), pp. 240-3. Michael Sivapragasam, "The Returned Maroons of Trelawny Town", Navigating Crosscurrents: Trans-linguality, Trans-culturality and Trans-identification in the Dutch Caribbean and Beyond, ed. by Nicholas Faraclas, etc (Curacao/Puerto Rico: University of Curacao, 2020), p. 17. Simon Schama, Rough Crossings (London: BBC Books, 2002), p. 382. Mavis Campbell, Back to Africa: George Ross and the Maroons (Trenton: Africa World Press, 1993), p. 48.
  39. ↑ Siva, Michael (Winter 2021). "Why Did the Black Poor of London Not Support the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme?". History Matters Journal. 1 (2): 25–47.
  40. ↑ "Birchtown Plaque - 'The Black Loyalists at Birchtown' (1997)". nsgna.ednet.ns.ca. Archived from the original on 2016-11-08. Retrieved 2025-05-22.
  41. ↑ James Walker, The Black Loyalists: The Search for a Promised Land in Nova Scotia and Sierra Leone 1783-1870 (London: Longman, 1976), pp. 240-3.
  42. ↑ Schama, Simon (2005). Rough crossings: Britain, the slaves, and the American Revolution. London: BBC Books. pp. 380–383. ISBN 978-0-06-053916-0.
  43. ↑ Michael Sivapragasam, "The Returned Maroons of Trelawny Town", Navigating Crosscurrents: Trans-linguality, Trans-culturality and Trans-identification in the Dutch Caribbean and Beyond, ed. by Nicholas Faraclas, etc (Curacao/Puerto Rico: University of Curacao, 2020), pp. 13, 18.
  44. ↑ Robert Baron and Ana C. Cara, Creolization as Cultural Creativity, University Press of Mississippi, 2011; accessed 12 July 2016, available online through Project MUSE
  45. ↑ Aimes, Hubert H. S. (1967). A History of Slavery in Cuba, 1511 to 1868. New York: Octagon Books.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 Perez de la Riva, Francisco (1996). "Cuban Palenques". In Price, Richard (ed.). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  47. ↑ Guanche, Jesús; Acosta, Nilson (2006–2007). "Cuba". Places of Memory of the Slave Route in the Latin Caribbean. Archived from the original on 4 September 2019. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  48. ↑ Morales Pino, Loraine. "Viñales celebra semana de la Cultura" [Viñales celebrates Culture Week]. Periódico Guerrillero (in Sifaniyanci). Archived from the original on 2 December 2019. Retrieved 21 December 2019.
  49. ↑ Henning Roessingh, Carel (2001). The Belizean Garifuna: Organization of Identity in an Ethnic Community in Central America. Rozenberg. p. 71. ISBN 978-90-5170-574-4.
  50. ↑ Samfuri:Cite podcast
  51. ↑ Helg, Aline (2019). "The Shock Waves of the Haitian Revolution". Slave No More: Self-Liberation before Abolitionism in the Americas. Translated by Vergnaud, Lara. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-1-4696-4963-4.
  52. ↑ Howard, Martin (2015). Death Before Glory: The British Soldier in the West Indies in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars 1793–1815. Pen and Sword. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-4738-7152-6.
  53. ↑ Hegart Breen, Henry (1844). St. Lucia: Historical, Statistical, and Descriptive. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. p. 96 – via Internet Archive.
  54. ↑ Stark, James Henry (1893). Stark's History and Guide to Barbados and the Caribbee Islands: Containing a Description of Everything on Or about These Islands of which the Visitor Or Resident May Desire Information ... Fully Illustrated with Maps, Engravings and Photo-prints. Photo-Electrotype Company. p. 55.
  55. ↑ "Black prisoners at Portchester Castle". English Heritage. Archived from the original on 24 July 2019.
  56. ↑ Brown, Mark (18 July 2017). "Hidden story of 2,000 African-Caribbean PoWs in a medieval castle". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 20 May 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2019.
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 Schwaller, Robert C. (2018). "Contested Conquests: African Maroons and the Incomplete Conquest of Hispaniola, 1519–1620". The Americas (in Turanci). 75 (4): 609–638. doi:10.1017/tam.2018.3. hdl:1808/29355.
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 Landers, Jane (2002). "The Central African Presence in Spanish Maroon Communities". In Linda M. Heywood (ed.). Central Africans and Cultural Transformations in the American Diaspora. Cambridge University Press. p. 234. ISBN 978-0-521-00278-3.
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 Landers, Jane (2008). "Transforming Bondsmen into Vassals". In Brown, Christopher Leslie; Morgan, Philip D. (eds.). Arming Slaves: From Classical Times to the Modern Age. Yale University Press. p. 139, note 17. ISBN 978-0-300-13485-8.
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 60.3 Moreau de Saint-Mery, Médéric Louis Élie (1996). "The Border Maroons of Saint Domingue". In Price, Richard (ed.). Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
  61. ↑ "The History of Haiti and the Haitian Revolution". The City of Miami. Archived from the original on 26 August 2007. Retrieved 16 August 2007.
  62. ↑ Corbett, Bob. The Haitian Revolution of 1791–1803, An Historical Essay in Four Parts. Archived from the original on 14 September 2019.
  63. ↑ "Albert Mangones, 85; His Bronze Sculpture Became Haitian Symbol". Los Angeles Times. 27 April 2002. Retrieved 9 March 2016.
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